RURAL  TEXT- 
SERIES 


FIELD 
CROP 

PRODUCTION 


LIVINGSTON 


•L.  H>  BAI  L 

EDITOR 


IRural  UextXBoofe  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


i&ural  Eex^iSooft  Series 

MANN,  BEGINNINGS  IN  AGRICULTURE. 
WARREN,  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
WARREN,  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 
LYON  AND  FIPPIN,  SOIL  MANAGEMENT. 
J.  F.  DUGGAR,  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS. 
B.  M.  DUGGAR,  PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY. 
HARPER,  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  FOR  SCHOOLS. 
MONTGOMERY,  CORN  CROPS. 
WHEELER,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 
LIVINGSTON,  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION. 
Others  in  preparation. 


FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 


A  TEXT-BOOK  FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSES 

IN   SCHOOLS  AND  BRIEF  COURSES 

IN   COLLEGES 


BY 
GEORGE   LIVINGSTON 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OP   AGRONOMY 
OHIO    STATE    UNIVERSITY 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1914, 
BT   THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  April,  1914. 


J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass..  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  intended  to  supply  in  convenient  form  gen- 
eral information  regarding  the  subject  of  field  crops,  for 
use  in  agricultural  schopls  and  in  elementary  courses  in 
colleges.  It  is  in  no  sense  a  complete  or  exhaustive  trea- 
tise on  the  subject,  such  as  would  be  desired  for  regular 
college  courses  in  field  crops. 

In  the  author's  judgment,  the  most  effective  method  of 
presenting  the  subject  of  field  crops  to  students  in  ele- 
mentary courses  is  by  the  combination  textbook  and  lec- 
ture plan,  the  textbook  to  furnish  basic  information,  and 
the  lecture  to  include  such  specific  information  as  the  in- 
structor cares  to  give.  In  very  elementary  courses,  the 
textbook  would  probably  furnish  the  principal  source  of 
instruction.  In  presenting  the  subject  of  field  crops  to 
students  of  short  or  two-year  courses  in  agricultural  col- 
leges, it  is  necessary,  on  account  of  the  vast  amount  of 
experimental  data  which  is  accumulating  and  constantly 
changing,  to  devote  a  large  part  of  the  time  allowed  to  the 
course  to  information  of  this  sort,  which  leaves  but  little 
time  for  presenting  the  more  elementary  phases  of  the 
subject.  A  more  complete  and  satisfactory  course  can,  in 
the  author's  opinion,  be  given  if  the  student  by  the  aid 
of  a  general  textbook  can  acquire  these  elementary  facts 
outside  of  class  hours.  The  elementary  courses  may  be 
made  very  complete,  if  desired,  by  the  use  of  such  a  text- 
book, and  the  devoting  of  the  major  part  of  the  lecture 


vi  PREFACE 

periods  to  the  consideration  of  experimental  results  in  gen- 
eral, to  the  making  of  local  applications  and  the  applying  of 
the  principles  of  plant  physiology  and  plant-breeding  to  field 
crops. 

Many  students  in  field  crop  courses,  both  in  agricultural 
schools  and  colleges,  have  come  from  town  or  city  homes, 
and  have  had  little  or  no  farm  experience.  While  it  is  not 
possible  to  acquire  farm  experience  from  a  textbook,  it  is 
possible  to  gain  from  such  a  source  much  of  the  general 
information  which  is  lacking. 

In  the  writing  of  this  book  there  has  been  included  but 
little  statistical  matter  and  but  little  experimental  data, 
which  can  be  presented  in  a  more  up-to-date  form  by 
means  of  lectures.  As  the  book  was  originally  written,  it 
contained  some  discussion  of  all  of  the  North  American 
field  crops,  but  in  order  to  keep  it  within  a  reasonable  size, 
it  has  been  necessary  to  omit  some  of  them,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  sugar  cane  and  tobacco. 

The  author  has  observed,  first  as  a  student  and  later  as 
an  instructor,  that  the  interest  which  the  student  feels  in 
any  subject  depends  largely  upon  whether  or  not  the  sub- 
ject matter  is  presented  in  an  attractive  manner.  For  that 
reason  he  has  included  in  this  book  somewhat  in  detail 
some  facts  which  are  of  interest  but  not  generally  con- 
sidered of  vital  importance. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  prove  useful  as  a  general 
textbook  of  field  crops  in  elementary  courses,  and  as  a  sup- 
plementary textbook  in  other  courses,  for  students  with 
little  or  no  elementary  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

I  am  indebted  to  C.  G-.  Williams  and  F.  A.  Welton  of  the 
Ohio  Experiment  Station,  to  Professor  E.  G.  Montgomery 
and  Dr.  H.  H.  Love,  of  Cornell  University,  to  C.  E.  Ball 
and  Dr.  C.  E.  Leighty,  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  to  Professor  H.  D.  Hughes,  of  Iowa  State 


PREFACE  vii 

College,  who  have  read  the  manuscript  in  whole  or  in  part 
and  who  have  offered  many  helpful  suggestions.  I  am 
grateful  to  those  who  have  written  chapters  which  have 
been  included  in  the  text,  and  which  appear  under  their 
names,  and  to  those  who  have  furnished  illustrations,  to 
whom  credit  is  given  in  the  list  of  illustrations.  I  wish 
also  to  express  my  appreciation  to  my  wife,  Inez  Van 
Sickle  Livingston,  for  her  constant  assistance  in  preparing 
the  manuscript  for  the  press. 

GEORGE   LIVINGSTON. 

OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY, 
COLUMBUS,  OHIO. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

INTRODUCTORY  VIEW .          1-13 

Classification  of  plants,  2  —  Variety,  3  —  Genus,  4  — 
Naming  of  plants.  5  —  The  family,  5  —  Order,  class,  and 
division,  6  —  Length  of  life,  7 —  Cultivated  plants,  8  — 
Field  crops,  8  —  Classification  of  field  crops,  9  —  Defi- 
nition of  terms,  12. 

CHAPTER  II 

CROP  ROTATIONS    .........        14-28 

Rotation  experiments  at  Rothamsted,  15  —  Rotation 
experiments  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  17  —  Rotation  experi- 
ments in  Ohio,  18  —  Why  rotations  give  better  yields, 
20  —  Planning  a  rotation,  23  —  Rotation  does  not  main- 
tain fertility,  25  —  Suggested  rotations,  27. 

CHAPTER  III 

CORN  OR  MAIZE 29-58 

Historical,  29  —  Botanical  characteristics,  30  —  Root, 
stem,  and  leaves,  30-33  —  Flowers,  ear,  and  kernel,  34- 
37  —  Ancestors  of  the  corn  plant,  38  —  Types  of  corn, 
41-50  —  Uses  of  corn  plant,  50-53  —  The  world's  pro- 
duction, 54  —  Adaptation,  57. 

CHAPTER  IV 
CORN  OR  MAIZE  (Continued)        .        .         .         .         .        .         59-98 

Methods  of  culture,  59  —  Plowing  and  preparing  the 
land,  61-67  —  Testing  the  seed,  68  — Time,  depth,  and 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


rate  of  planting,  71-74  —  Cultivation,  75  —  Harvesting 
and  storing,  76-82  —  Improvement  of  corn,  82  —  Vari- 
ety test,  83  —  Seed  selection,  85  —  Ear-to-row  test,  88  — 
Breeding  and  multiplying  plot,  90-91  —  Corn  judging,  92 
—  Insects  and  fungous  diseases,  93-98. 


CHAPTER  V 

WHEAT  .         .         .        ,         .         .     ^ 

Historical,  99  —  Botanical  characteristics,  100  —  Root, 
stem,  and  leaves,  100-103 —  Spikelets,  flowers,  and  ker- 
nel, 103-106  —  Types  of  wheat,  107-113  —  Uses  of  wheat, 
113  —  Evolution  of  flour  mill  and  modern  milling,  114- 
119  _The  world's  production,  1 19  —  Production  in  the 
United  States,  121  —  World's  supply  and  demand,  122 
—  Wheat  districts  of  the  United  States,  123-126  — 
Adaptation,  127  —  Methods  of  culture,  129-136  —  Im- 
provement of  wheat,  136  —  The  variety  test,  137  —  The 
head-row  test,  139  —  Wheat  judging,  141  —  Insects  and 
fungous  diseases,  142-144. 


99-144 


CHAPTER  VI 


OATS 


Historical,  145  —  Botanical  characters,  145  —  The 
leaves  and  flowers,  147  —  Types  of  oats,  150  —  Uses  of 
oats,  150-152  —  The  world's  production,  152  —  Produc- 
tion in  the  United  States,  152—  Exports  and  imports, 
153  — Adaptation,  154  — Methods  of  culture,  155-160  — 
Improvement  of  oats,  161  —  Insect  enemies  and  fungous 
diseases,  162. 

CHAPTER   VII 
BARLEY  .........         ... 

Historical,  164  —  Botanical  characters,  165-166  — 
Types  of  barley,  167  — Uses  of  barley,  168-170— The 
world's  production,  171  —  Exports  and  imports,  172  — 
Adaptation,  172  —  Methods  of  culture,  173-175  —  Insect 
enemies  and  fungous  diseases,  176. 


145-163 


164-176 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


XI 


CHAPTER   VIII 


RYE 


Historical,  177  —  Botanical  characteristics,  177  —  Uses 
of  rye,  178  —  Production,  180  —  Adaptation,  181  — 
Methods  of  culture,  182  —  Fungous  diseases  and  insect 
enemies,  183. 

CHAPTER  IX 
RICE  AND  BUCKWHEAT  ....... 

Rice  :  Historical,  184  —  Botanical  characteristics,  184 
—  Uses,  185  —  Production  and  distribution,  186 — Adap- 
tation, 187  —  Cultural  methods,  188  —  Buckwheat :  His- 
torical, 189  — Description,  189  —  Uses,  191  —  Production, 
191  — Cultural  methods,  192. 


PAGES 

177-183 


184-193 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  PERENNIAL  GRASSES 194-209 

Timothy:  Description,  194 — Distribution  and  adap- 
tation, 196 — Cultural  methods,  197-200  —  Kentucky 
blue-grass  :  Description,  201  —  Distribution  and  adapta- 
tion, 203  — Uses,  204  — Cultural  methods,  205  — Canada 
blue-grass,  206  —  Redtop  :  Description,  206  —  Adapta- 
tion and  distribution,  208  —  Uses,  208  —  Cultural  meth- 
ods, 209. 

CHAPTER  XI 
OTHER  PERENNIAL  GRASSES  .......     210-220 

Orchard  grass  :  Description,  210  —  Distribution  and 
adaptation,  211  —  Uses,  211  —  Cultural  methods,  212  — 
Brome-grass,  212-215  —  The  fescues,  215-217  —  Ber- 
muda-grass, 217-218  —  Johnson-grass,  219  —  The  rye- 
grasses,  219. 


CHAPTER  XII 
ANNUAL  GRASSES  FOR  GRAIN  AND  FORAGE  .... 

The  millets  :  The  foxtail  millets,  221-224  —  The  broom- 
corn  millets,  224  — The  barnyard  millets,  225  — Pearl 


221-238 


Xll 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


millet,  226  — Uses  of  millets,  226  — Cultural  methods, 
227  —  The  sorghums:  General  description,  228  —  Sac- 
charine sorghums  or  sorgo,  229-232  —  The  non-saccha- 
rine sorghums,  232-235  —  The  broomcorns,  235-238. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LEGUMES  IN  GENERAL   ........ 

Description,  239  —  The  flowers,  240  —  Pollination,  242 
—  Relation- to  soil  fertility,  245  —  Bacteria  in  relation  to 
legume,  247-250  —  Inoculation,  250. 


239-252 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  CLOVERS         .        .        .         .         .        .,   .   ..   \..      .     253-277 

Historical,  253  —  Red  clover  :  Description,  254-256  — 
Distribution  and  adaptation,  256-258  —  Uses,  258  — 
Cultural  methods,  259-263  —  Mammoth  clover  :  Descrip- 
tion, 264  —  Uses  and  cultural  methods,  264-266  —  White 
clover  :  Description,  266  —  Adaptation  and  uses,  267  — 
Cultural  methods,  268  —  Alsike  clover  :  Description,  269 
—  Adaptation,  270  —  Uses  and  cultural  methods,  270- 

272  —  Crimson  clover  :  Description,  272  —  Adaptation, 

273  — Uses  and  cultural  methods,  274-276  —  Fungous 
diseases  and  insect  enemies,  276. 


CHAPTER  XV 

ALFALFA 278-293 

Description  and  varieties,  279-281 — Distribution  and 
adaptation,  282-283  — Use  of  alfalfa,  285  — Cultural 
methods,  286-292. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  VETCHES,  SWEET  CLOVERS,  AND  OTHERS     .         ,         .     294-304 

The  vetches,  294-297  —  The  sweet  clovers,  298-301  — 
Bur  clovers,  302 — Japan  clover,  303. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Xlll 


CHAPTER  XVII 

LEGUMES  FOR  GRAIN  AND  FORAGE  ..... 
The  soybean  :  Description,  305  —  Distribution  and 
adaptation,  307  —  Uses  and  cultural  methods,  308-312  — 
The  cowpea  :  Description,  312  —  Distribution  and  adap- 
tation, 314  —  Cultural  methods,  315  —  The  field  pea: 
Description,  316  —  Distribution  and  adaptation,  317  — 
Cultural  methods,  318  —  The  field  bean,  320  —  The  pea- 
nut, 321. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

ROOT  CROPS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS          .... 

Introductory,  323  —  The  sugar  beet,  324-328— Mangel 

wurzels,  329-330  —  Turnips  and  rutabagas,  331  —  The 

carrot,  332  —  Rape  :  Description,  333  —  Distribution  and 

adaptation,  333  — Uses,  334  — Cultural  methods,  335. 


305-322 


323^336 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  FIBER  CROPS 337-357 

Cotton  :  Description,  339  —  Kinds  of  cotton,  341  — 
Marketing  and  uses,  343  —  Production  and  adaptation, 
345 — Methods  of  culture,  348  —  Flax  :  Description,  351 
—  Uses,  352  —  Production  and  distribution,  354  —  Cul- 
tural methods,  355 — Hemp,  356. 

CHAPTER  XX 

^HE  POTATO 358-369 

Production,  358  —  Description,  359  —  Cultural  meth- 
ods, 360  —  Sprouting  and  planting,  361-362  —  Varieties, 
363  —  Harvesting  and  storing,  366  —  Insects  and  fungous 
diseases,  366-368. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES       .......     370-380 

Meadows  and  pastures  as  field  crops,  370  —  The  rota- 
tion, 371  —  Grass  mixtures,  372  —  Testing  the  seed,  374 


XIV 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGES 

—  Seeding,  377  —  Care  of  grass  lands,  377  —Temporary 
pastures,  379  — Substitute  hay  crops,  380. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

THE  MARKETING  OF  GRAIN •     381-395 

Supply  and  demand,  381  — The  country  elevator,  382 

—  Cooperative  and  line  elevators,  383  — The  terminal 
market,  384  —  Grain  inspection  and  methods  employed, 
386  — Methods  of  sale,  389  — The  price  of  grain,  392  — 
Export  trade,  394. 


APPENDIX 


REFERENCE  BOOKS 
LIST  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 
COMPOSITION  OF  FIELD  CROPS 
REVIEW  QUESTIONS        .        • 


397-398 
399 

400-401 
403-416 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Small  plots  of  cereals  at  the  Dominion  of  Canada  Experimental 

Farms,  Ottawa Frontispiece 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  Comparative  value  of  crops  in  United  States         ,        .        .        9 

2.  Six  leading  crops  of  United  States      .."',-        .        .        .         .       11 

3.  Flowers  of  the  corn  plant.     (Extension  Department,  Ohio 

State  University)     ........       35 

4.  Ear  of  dent  corn  with  small  ears  clustered  at  base          .  .       39 

5.  A  branching  corn  plant          .         .        ...         .  .40 

6.  Cross  section  of  a  kernel  of  dent  corn    .        .        .    '     .  .42 

7.  An  ear  of  dent  corn        .         .         .         .        ...         .  .       43 

8.  Cross  section  of  a  kernel  of  flint  corn     .        .         ...  .44 

9.  An  ear  of  flint  corn         .        .         .         .        .        .        .  .       45 

10.  Rice  pop  corn         .         .         ...',.        .         •        •       46 

11.  Cross  section  of  a  kernel  of  soft  corn 47 

12.  An  ear  of  soft  corn         .         .         .         .        .         .  .       48 

13.  An  ear  of  sweet  corn      .        .         .         ...        .        *        .48 

14.  An  ear  of  pod  corn.     (Extension  Department,  Ohio  State 

University)      .....  ./.         .         .  49 

15.  Unfertilized  and  fertilized  corn  plots      .         .         .  60 

16.  Plowing  with  a  tractor.     (Country  Gentleman}    ...  62 

17.  A  field  of  corn  destroyed  by  grub  worms         .  64 

18.  Rye  plowed  under.     (Extension  Department,  Ohio  State 

University)       ....         .....       66 

19.  A  good  type  of  roller  for  crushing  clods.     (Extension  Depart- 

ment, Ohio  State  University) 67 

20.  Making  a  germination  test.     (Extension  Department,  Ohio 

State  University)     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .69 

21.  Planting  corn  with  a  check  rower 73 

22.  Harvesting  corn  with  a  corn  binder.     (International  Har- 

vester Company) 78 

23.  Filling  the  silo 79 


XVI  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PACK 

24.  A  field  of  corn  in  shock.  (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio 

Station) 80 

26.  A  rack  for  storing  corn.  (Extension  Department,  Ohio 

State  University) 86 

26.  Remnants  of  an  ear-row  test.     (Agronomy  Department, 

Ohio  Station) 89 

27.  Corn-breeding  plot          .        .         .         .  ,         .         .90 

28.  Corn-multiplying  plot     . 91 

29.  A  sample  of  show  corn 93 

30.  Diagram  showing  manner  of  growth      .....  101 

31.  Diagram  showing  stooling  or  tillering  in  wheat      .         .         .102 

32.  Variation  in  number  of  culms  per  plant.     (Agronomy  De- 

partment, Ohio  Station) 103 

33.  Variation  in  size  of  head  and  number  of  spikelets.     (Ohio 

Station)  . .104 

34.  A  spikelet  of  wheat 105 

35.  Einkorn 108 

36.  Spelt 109 

37.  Emmer 109 

38.  Club  wheat 110 

39.  Polish  wheat 112 

40.  Loaves  of  bread  illustrating  the  baking  qualities  of  flour 

made  from  different  varieties  of  wheat.     (Extension 
Department,  Ohio  State  University)       .         .        .         .117 

41.  Wheat  crops  of  the  leading  countries  of  the  world         .         .  120 

42.  Cross  section  of  a  poorly  and  well  prepared  seed  bed.     (Ex- 

tension Department,  Ohio  State  University)  .         .         .  130 

43.  Harvesting  wheat.     (Dr.  C.  E.  Saunders,  Ottawa,  Canada)  134 

44.  A  combination  harvester  and  thrasher.     (Successful  Farm- 

ing)            135 

45.  Thrashing  wheat  in  the  Northwest 136 

46.  Variety  tests  of  wheat  showing  earliness  of  Marquis.     (Dr. 

C.  E.  Saunders,  Experimental  Farms,  Ottawa,  Canada)  138 

47.  Head-row  test  at  Ohio  Station  showing  variation  in  erectness 

of  heads.     (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio  Station)         .  139 

48.  Head-row  test  showing  variation  in  yield  of  straw  and  grain  140 

49.  Harvesting  wheat  plots  at  Cornell  University.     (Plant  Breed- 

ing Department)      ........  141 

50.  Spikelet  of  oats 146 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIGURE  PAGE 

51-52.   Side   and  branched  panicle  of  oats.     (Plant  Breeding 

Department,  Cornell  University) 148 

53    Broad-casting  oats.     (Successful  Farming)  ....  157 

54.  Seeding  oats  with  a  drill         .......  158 

55.  Testing  varieties  of  cereals.     (Dr.  C.  E.  Saunders,  Dominion 

Experimental  Farms,  Ottawa) 159 

56.  Variation  in  stiffness  of  straw 160 

57.  Treating  seed  oats  for  smut.     (Extension  Department,  Ohio 

State  University) 161 

58.  Covered  and  loose  smut  of  oats      ......  162 

59.  Spikelets  of  barley .  165 

60.  Two-rowed  barley 166 

61.  Six-rowed  barley    .         ........  167 

62.  A  field  of  Manchurian  barley  at  Indian  Head,  Canada.    (Dr. 

C.  E.  Saunders) 174 

63.  A  head  of  rye 178 

64.  Plowing  under  rye.     (Extension  Department,  Ohio  State 

University) 180 

65.  Rye  seeded  in  corn  at  last  cultivation.    (Successful  Farming)  182 

66.  A  panicle  of  rice     .........  185 

67.  Harvesting  rice  in  Arkansas.     (Successful  Farming)   .         .  188 

68.  Buckwheat  in  bloom       ........  190 

69.  Timothy  in  bloom.     (Plant  Breeding  Department,  Cornell 

University)      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .195 

70.  Cutting  timothy  hay.     (International  Harvester  Company)  199 

71.  Plots  of   timothy  at  Cornell  University.     (Plant  Breeding 

Department) 200 

72.  Kentucky  blue-grass.  (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio  Station)  202 

73.  Redtop.     (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio  Station)          .         .  207 

74.  Orchard  grass  in  full  bloom 210 

75.  Brome-grass.     (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio  Station)          .  213 

76.  Meadow  fescue.     (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio  Station)    .  216 

77.  Common  and  Siberian  millet .222 

78.  German  millet 223 

79.  Broom-corn  millet 224 

80.  Barnyard  millet 225 

81     Cutting  sorghum.     (Agronomy  Department,  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural College)      ........  231 

82.    Heading  kafir  in  Texas.     (Professor  A.  G.  McCall)      .        .  235 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

83.  Dwarf  and  standard  broomcorn.     (Professor  A.  G.  McCall)  236 

84.  Flowers  of  alfalfa          . 241 

85-86.    Diagram  of  typical  legume  flower  and  insect  pollination  242 

87.  Applying  lime  to  a  field.     (Country  Gentleman)         .        .  247 

88.  Nodules  on  roots  of  soy  beans.     (Extension  Department, 

Ohio  State  University) 250 

89.  Red  clover 255 

90.  Effects  of  lime  on  growth  of  red  clover        ....  257 

91.  Cutting  clover  hay 261 

92.  Using  the  tedder  on  a  heavy  hay  crop          ....  262 

93.  Rolling  down  clover.  (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio  Station)  265 

94.  Trailing  stem  of  white  clover.     (Agronomy  Department, 

Ohio  Station) 267 

95.  Alsike  clover.     (Agronomy  Department,  Ohio  Station)       .  269 

96.  Using   the    side-delivery   rake.     (Agronomy    Department, 

Ohio  Station)         .         .         .         ...         .         .270 

97.  Curing  clover  hay  in  the  cock       .         .         .         .'•*'..        .  271 

98.  A  crimson  clover  plant.     (Country  Gentleman)  .        .         .  273 

99.  An  alfalfa  plant.     (Ohio  Station) 278 

100.  Arrangement  of  leaflets  in  alfalfa  and  clover       .         .         .  279 

101.  Alfalfa  roots.     (Professor  A.  G.  McCall)     .         .         .         .280 

102.  Stacking  alfalfa  in  New  Mexico.     (Professor  A.  G.  McCall)  289 

103.  Canvas  covers  on  alfalfa  cocks.     (Agronomy  Department, 

Ohio  Station) 291 

104.  Farmers  examining  alfalfa  test  plots  at  the  Ohio  Station     .  293 

105.  Vetch  plant  showing  flowers,  leaves,  and  tendrils         .        .  295 

106.  A  sample  of  hairy  vetch.     (Country  Gentleman}         .         .  296 

107.  A  field  of  vetch  in  full  bloom.     (Successful  Farming)        .  297 

108.  A  sweet  clover  plant.     (Extension  Department,  Ohio  State 

University) 298 

109.  Effects  of  lime  on  the  growth  of  sweet  clover       .         .         .  299 

110.  Sweet  clover  growing  by  the  roadside.     (Extension  Depart- 

ment, Ohio  State  University) 300 

111.  A  soy  bean  plant 306 

112.  A  field  of  soy  beans 307 

113.  Soy  beans  growing  with  corn.     (Extension  Department, 

Ohio  State  University)  .         .         .         .  "      .         .         .311 

114.  Pods  of  cowpeas  and  soy  beans 313 

115.  Cowpeas  and  corn.     (Country  Gentleman)          .        .         .  314 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

FIGURE  PAGE 

116.  A  field  of  cowpeas.     (Successful  Farming)         .        .        .  316 

117.  Canada  field  peas 317 

118.  Peanuts .321 

119.  A  sugar  beet         .  • 325 

120.  Foreigners  working  in  a  beet  field.     (C.  S.  Wheeler)  .         .  328 

121.  Pasturing  hogs  on  rape         .......  334 

122.  A  cotton  plant.     (Alabama  Station)    .         .         .         .        .  337 

123.  Production  of  cotton 345 

124.  Seed  pods  of  flax ~.        .        .352 

125.  A  bundle  of  flax  and  fiber.     (Farmers' Bulletin  274)  .         .  353 

126.  Harvesting  potatoes.     (H.  C.  Ramsower)     .         .        .         .  364 

127.  A  potato  digger.     (H.  C.  Ramsower)  .....  365 

128.  Hauling  hay  to  market.     (Extension   Department,    Ohio 

State  University).        .        .        .    ';.;.        .        .        .  372 

129.  Examining  seeds  for  purity           .         .        .        .         .        .  374 

130.  Testing  grass  and  legume  seeds    .        .        .        .'        .        .  375 

131.  A  typical  country  elevator.    (Grain  Standardization  Depart- 

ment, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture)  .         .  382 

132.  A  terminal  elevator  in  Chicago    .         .         ...        .         .  385 

133.  Inspecting  grain  at  Chicago           .         .       '. '    -.  \   '     .      .  .  388 

134.  A  seaboard  elevator.     (Dr.  C.  E.  Leighty)  .         .         .        .  393 

135.  Unloading  grain  at  a  Danish  port.     (Dr.  C.  E.  Leighty)      .  394 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

CHAPTER   I 
INTRODUCTORY  VIEW 

ALL  the  plants  that  grow  on  the  earth  are  called,  col- 
lectively, the  plant  kingdom.  The  plant  kingdom  is  made 
up  of  innumerable  forms  of  vegetation,  ranging  in  size 
from  the  tiny  one-celled  plant,  so  small  that  it  cannot  be 
seen  with  the  unaided  eye,  to  the  giant  trees  of  the  forest. 
Between  these  two  extremes  are  to  be  found  myriads  of 
intermediate  forms,  the  algae  that  grow  in  ponds  and 
streams,  the  mosses  and  lichens  that  grow  on  the  trees 
and  rocks,  the  ferns  of  the  woods,  the  grasses  and  grains  of 
the  fields,  the  wonderful  shrubs  and  plants  with  which  we 
beautify  our  yards  and  gardens,  and  numerous  other 
similar  and  related  forms.  Plants  differ  not  only  in  their 
size,  structure  and  habitat,  but  also  in  the  kinds  of  food 
that  they  are  able  to  use  and  in  their  usefulness  to  man. 
Some  forms  of  vegetation  are  able  to  secure  their  food 
from  the  inanimate  world  in  the  form  of  chemical  elements 
or  compounds  in  the  soil  and  in  the  atmosphere,  and  by 
certain  life  processes  are  able  to  convert  them  into  forms 
useful  in  building  up  their  own  structures.  Other  forms 
are  not  able  to  do  this,  but  must  derive  a  part  of  their 
food  from  compounds  that  have  already  been  incorporated 
in  the  bodies  of  other  plants  or  animals.  To  the  former 
class  belong  most  of  our  cultivated  plants,  while  in  the 


2  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

latter  class  are  to  be  found  many  of  the  plants  that  injure 
and  produce  disease  in  the  cultivated  forms.  To  this 
group  belong  the  rusts  and  smuts  that  attack  the  grains, 
the  blights  and  wilts  that  lay  low  the  vegetables,  and  many 
other  injurious,  as  well  as  some  useful  forms. 

In  their  usefulness  to  man,  plants  vary  greatly.  They 
are  of  service  to  him  principally  in  furnishing  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter.  They  are  also  a  factor  in  many  industries, 
the  products  of  which  supply  in  some  form  or  other  the 
needs  of  man.  Every  industry,  in  fact,  no  matter  how  far 
removed  from  the  growing  of  plants  it  may  seem  to  be,  is 
either  directly  or  indirectly  dependent  upon  it.  The 
fundamental  basis  of  any  industry  is  to  be  found  in  the 
food  supply  of  the  people  who  engage  in  it,  and  of  the 
people  who  consume  the  commodities  produced.  Men 
derive  their  supply  of  food  principally  from  two  sources, 
plants  and  animals.  The  animals,  however,  are  either 
directly  or  indirectly  dependent  upon  plants,  so  that,  in 
the  last  analysis,  the  food  supply  of  the  nations  of  the 
world  and  consequently  the  existence  of  all  the  industries 
of  the  world  are  dependent  upon  the  production  of  plants. 
Not  all  plants,  however,  are  useful  to  man,  many  of  the 
most  troublesome  diseases  that  attack  the  crops  being 
plant  growths. 

1.  Classification  of  plants.  —  Because  the  plant  king- 
dom is  made  up  of  these  multitudes  of  widely  differing 
forms,  it  has  been  necessary  for  botanists,  for  purposes  of 
study,  to  classify  them  into  various  groups.  This  branch 
of  the  study  is  called  systematic  botany,  and  has  occupied 
the  attention  of  botanists  for  many  years.  The  classifica- 
tion has  to  do  with  the  arranging  of  plants  into  groups, 
based  upon  their  similarity  of  parts,  —  their  evident 
relationship.  While  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  general 


INTRODUCTORY  VIEW  3 

student  of  field  crops  to  go  exhaustively  into  the  subject 
of  systematic  botany,  a  knowledge  of  its  principles  is 
necessary  to  a  satisfactory  understanding  of  field  crops 
and  of  the  terms  employed  in  any  discussion  of  them. 

2.  Species.  —  The   grouping   can   best   be   understood 
perhaps  if  we  start  with  the  individual.1     If  a  seed  of 
Kentucky  blue-grass  is   planted,  it   will  with  favorable 
conditions  for  growth  develop  into  a  plant,  which  in  time 
will   produce   seeds   for   its   own   perpetuation.     If  these 
seeds  in  turn  are  planted,  they  will  give  rise  to  other  plants, 
which  in  time  will  produce  seeds,  and  so  on.     Within  a 
few  years  a  large  number  of  plants  will  result,  the  progeny 
of  a  single  blue-grass  seed.   A  careful  examination  of  these 
plants  will  show  that,  while  they  are  very  much  alike,  slight 
variations  occur  in  size,  form  and  color  of  their  various 
parts.     While   these   variations   may   occur,    the   plants 
on  the  whole  resemble  each  other  very  closely,  having 
descended  from  a  common  ancestor.     These  plants  and 
all  others,  wherever  they  may  be  found,  resembling  them 
so  closely  that  they  might  well  have  come  from  the  individ- 
ual plant  of  which  we  spoke,  are  placed  in  a  group  called 
a  species.     A  species,  therefore,  is  made  up  of  individuals 
so  near  alike  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  having  come 
from  a  common  ancestor. 

3.  Variety.  —  As  has  been  noted,  slight  variations  occur 
among  the  individual  members  of  a  species.     Sometimes 
variation  in  form,  size  or  structure  of  a  plant  or  its  parts 
is  such  as  to  make  it  more  useful  to  man  than  the  other 
members  of  the  species.     Frequently  man  selects  plants 
possessing  some  superior  quality  and  develops  from  them, 
by  using  their  seeds  for  perpetuation,  a  group  of  plants 

1  Method  of  presenting  classification  of  plants  adapted  from  Percival's 
Agricultural  Botany. 


4  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

that  varies  slightly  in  some  one  or  more  characteristics 
from  the  other  individuals  in  the  species.  Such  a  group  of 
plants  is  called  a  variety.  jL-Y-ajjgty,  therefore,  is  a 
group  of  indS^uab^jQt^^^jg^^^tQEj^^^^ 
somejvariation  from  the  species  as  a  whole...  As  yet  no 
varieties  have  been  developed  from  Kentucky  blue-grass, 
but  examples  of  varieties  in  abundance  may  be  had  from 
the  grain  crops,  such  as  corn  and  wheat.  Thus  we  find 
many  varieties  of  corn,  such  as  Reid  Yellow  Dent, 
Boone  County  White,  Calico,  and  many  others.  These 
varieties  have  some  character  or  characters  that  dis- 
tinguish them  from  corn  in  general.  The  color  of  the 
grain,  the  size  of  the  ear  and  plants,  the  length  of  season 
required  for  growth,  and  similar  variations  are  distin- 
guishing variety  characteristics.1  Varieties,  however,  are 
not  so  different  from  the  other  individuals  of  the  species 
as  to  form  a  separate  and  distinct  species  by  themselves. 
Thus  Reid  Yellow  Dent  and  Boone  County  White,  and 
all  other  varieties  of  corn,  are  members  of  the  corn  species 
Zea  Mays. 

4.  Genus.  —  If  one  examines  closely  all  kinds  of 
grasses,  it  will  be  found  that  certain  kinds  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  Kentucky  blue-grass,  in  the  general  appear- 
ance, manner  of  growth,  structure  of  parts,  the  arrange- 
ment of  flowers,  and  the  like.1  Thus  such  species  as 
Canada  blue-grass,  Rough-stalk  meadow-grass,  and 

1In  presenting  the  scheme  of  classification  of  plants,  the  author  has 
used  such  general  terms  as  "manner  of  growth,"  and  "general  appearance" 
in  referring  to  varietal  and  generic  characteristics,  viewing  the  subject 
from  the  agronomist's  point  of  view,  as  the  discussion  for  elementary 
students  of  the  plants  with  which  he  deals  does  not  necessitate  going 
into  the  intricate  distinctions  employed  by  the  botanist.  The  term 
"  variety  "  is  used  in  the  agronomic  sense,  not  as  a  sub-species  as  the 
botanists  use  it. 


INTRODUCTORY  VIEW  5 

Wood's  meadow-grass  so  closely  resemble  Kentucky 
blue-grass  as  to  establish  with  it  a  close  relationship. 
Species  which  are  thus  closely  related  are  placed  in  a 
group  called  a  genus.  A  genus,  therefore,  is  a  group 
_of  closely  related  species. 

5.  Naming  of  plants.  —  For  convenience  in  describing 
and  identifying  the  various  species  that  comprise  a  genus, 
and  to  distinguish  the  various  genera,  it  has  been  necessary 
to  name  plants  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  the  species  - 
and  genus  to  which  they  belong.     The  botanical  or  scien- 
tific name  of  a  plant  is  composed  of  two  Latin  words, 
the  first  of  which  is  the  name  of  the  genus  and  the  sec 
that  of  the  species.     Thus  Kentucky  blue-grass  is  known 
as  Poa  pratensis,  Canada   blue-grass  as  Poa  compressa, 
Rough-stalked  meadow-grass  as  Poa  trivialis,  and  Wood's 
meadow-grass  as  Poa  nemoralis.     Varieties  of  farm  crops 
are  not  given  Latin  names,  but  frequently  are  named  for  the 
man  who  is  responsible  for  their  development,   as  Reid 
Yellow  Dent  corn,  or  sometimes  for  the  section  of  the 
country  in  which  they  were  developed,  as  Boone  County 
White,  or  by  some  other  distinguishing  name,  such  as  Pride 
of  the  North,  Rust-proof,  Medium  Green,  and  the  like. 

6.  The  family. — On  observing  the  pasture  and  meadow 
grasses,  one  will  almost  immediately  note  their  similarity 
and  general  appearance,  manner  of  growth,  shape  of  leaves, 
character  of  stems,  and  other  characters.     It  may  be  seen, 
however,  that  this  resemblance  is  not  close  enough  to  group 
them  all  in  the  same  genus,  but  that  the  various  genera  are 
similar  and  may  be  classed  together  in  a  larger  group, 
which  is  called  the  family.     Thus  the  meadow  and  pasture 
grasses  together  with  other  grasses  may  all  be  included 
in  a  large  group  or  family,  called  the  Graminese  or  grass 
family.     The  family  group  may  include  genera  of  con- 


6  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

siderable  variation  in  size  or  other  characters;  thus 
oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  even  corn,  each  of  which  belongs 
to  a  different  genus,  are  all  members  of  the  grass  family. 
But  the  variation  between  oats  and  the  meadow  grasses 
like  timothy  is  not  so  great  as  would  appear  without 
examination  of  the  plants  themselves.  Examination  will 
reveal  the  similarity  in  the  character  of  growth,  shape,  and 
structure  of  the  leaves,  stem,  and  flowers.  The  nearness 
of  their  relationship  will  become  more  evident  if  one  of 
them  is  compared  with  a  species  of  another  family,  such 
as  one  of  the  clovers.  Immediately  a  great  dissimilarity 
between  these  will  be  noticed  in  the  leaves,  stem,  roots, 
and  flowers. 

7.  Orders,   classes,    and   divisions.  —  As    genera    and 
families  have  been  formed,   so   are  the   closely  related 
families  grouped  into  orders.     Orders  with  similar  charac- 
ters are  grouped  into  classes,  and  similar  classes  form 
divisions.     The  division  represents  the  largest  group  of 
the  plant  kingdom. 

8.  Divisions. — The  plant  kingdom  has  been  divided  into 
four  great  divisions,  namely,  Thallophytes,  Bryophytes, 
Pteridophytes,  and  Spermatophytes.      The  Thallophytes 
and  Bryophytes  comprise  the  lower  forms  of  plants ;  the 
algae,  fungi,  and  bacteria  belonging  in  the  former  group, 
and  the  liverworts  and  mosses  in  the  latter.     The  plants  of 
these  two  divisions  have  neither  true  stems  nor  leaves,  nor 
do  they  produce  flowers  and  seeds.     The  Pteridophytes 
include  the  ferns  and  related  plants.     The  plants  of  this 
division  have  stems  and  leaves,  but  do  not  produce  true 
flowers  or  seeds.     These  three  great  divisions  of  the  plant 
kingdom,  Thallophytes,  Bryophytes,  and  Pteridophytes, 
are  often  grouped  together  into  the  "  flowerless  plants." 
The  one  remaining  group,  namely,  the  Spermatophytes, 


INTRODUCTORY   VIEW  1 

includes  all  of  the  seed-producing  plants.  To  this  group 
belong  almost  all  of  the  cultivated  plants,  and  it  is  by  far 
the  most  important  division  in  its  relation  to  mankind. 
The  Thallophytes,  however,  are  of  considerable  impor- 
tance to  man  in  that  within  its  membership  are  to  be 
found  the  bacteria,  both  useful  and  harmful,  and  also  the 
numerous  plant  diseases.  The  farmer,  therefore,  is  eco- 
nomically interested  chiefly  in  only  two  of  the  great 
divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the  Thallophytes  and 
the  Spermatophytes. 

The  two  classes  of  Spermatophytes  are  the  Gymno- 
sperms  and  the  Angiosperms.  The  Gymnosperms  include 
those  plants  the  seeds  of  which  are  naked  or  not  inclosed, 
and  are  formed  on  the  outside  of  a  modified  leaf.  A 
large  number  of  the  Gymnosperms  are  coniferous  or  cone- 
bearing  trees,  such  as  the  pine,  cedars,  yews,  and  similar 
plants.  The  Angiosperms  include  those  plants  whose 
seeds  are  inclosed  in  pod-  or  sac-like  structures.  To  this 
group  belong  almost  all  of  the  cultivated  plants.  The 
Angiosperms  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-classes,  namely, 
the  Dicotyledons  and  the  Monocotyledons.  The  dicoty- 
ledonous plants  may  be  distinguished  by  the  presence 
of  two  cotyledons  or  seed  leaves,  while  the  monocoty- 
ledons have  but  one.  Both  dicotyledonous  and  monocoty- 
ledonous  plants  are  to  be  found  in  our  cultivated  forms. 
The  Leguminosae,  to  which  belong  the  clovers,  peas,  and 
beans,  is  an  example  of  the  former,  while  the  Graminese, 
or  grass  family,  to  which  belong  the  grasses  and  grains,  is 
an  example  of  the  latter. 

9.  Length  of  life.  —  Based  upon  their  length  of  life, 
plants  may  be  divided  into  annuals,  biennials,  and  peren- 
nials. An  annual  is  one  that  lives  only  during  one  growing 
season.  A  biennial  is  one  that  requires  two  growing 


£  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

seasons  to  complete  the  life  cycle,  no  seeds  being  produced 
during  the  first  season,  but  only  leaves,  stems,  and  roots. 
The  seed  is  produced  the  second  season.  Perennials 
are  plants  that  live  for  more  than  two  years.  Some 
perennials,  such  as  alsike  clover,  live  but  a  short  time, 
three  or  four  years  or  so,  while  other  perennials,  such  as 
alfalfa  and  blue-grass,  live  for  many  years.  Some  annuals 
utilize  parts  of  two  growing  seasons,  instead  of  making 
all  their  growth  in  one  season.  An  example  is  winter 
wheat,  which  makes  a  partial  growth  during  the  fall  and 
completes  its  growth  the  next  year.  Suchjlants  are 
called  winter  annuals . 

10.  Cultivated  plants.  —  The  flowering  plants,  includ- 
ing  both   monocotyledons    and    dicotyledons,    of   which 
there  are  a  great  number,  and  which  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  where  plants  exist,  may  be  divided  into 
the  cultivated  and  uncultivated  plants.     However,  some 
plants  that  are  cultivated  in  one  part  of  the  world  may 
grow  wild  in  other  lands.     Of  the  great  number  of  flowering 
plants,  species  of  over  200  families  are  cultivated  by  man. 
These  include  those  cultivated  for  their  flowers,  fruit,  stem 
and  leaves,  roots,  tubers,  grain  and  fiber.     The  cultivated 
plants  may  be  grouped  into  two  general  classes,  horticul- 
tural  plants   and  field  plants.     Horticultural  plants  are 
the  fruits  and  vegetables.     Field  plants  are  those  plants 
grown  in  fields  for  their  stems,  leaves,  roots,  tubers,  fiber,' 
or  seeds. 

11.  Field  crops.  —  Field  crops  may  be  defined  as  those 
plants  grown  in  cultivated  fields  under  a  somewhat  exten- 
sive   system    of    culture.     Horticultural    crops,    on    the 
other  hand,  are  those  plants  grown  in  comparatively  small 
areas  under  systems  of  intensive  culture.     This  is  not  a 
hard  and  fast  distinction,  however,  since  such  crops  as 


INTRODUCTORY    VIEW 


9 


the  sugar  beets,  while  considered  as  field  crops,  are  grown 
under  rather  intensive  systems  of  culture.  Tobacco, 
also,  is  a  field  crop  that  requires  intensive  culture,  while 
on  the  other  hand,  vegetables  and  fruits  are  frequently 
grown  in  comparatively  large  areas.  The  student  of 
field  crops  is  interested  in  the  study  of  all  plants  grown  as 
field  crops,  and  in  their  culture,  harvesting,  storing,  market, 
and  uses.  Closely  re- 
lated to  the  study  of 
field  crops  are  the 
problems  of  soil  fer- 
tility. Frequently 
these  two  subjects 
are  grouped  under 
the  same  term,  agron- 
omy, which  means 
culture  of  the  fields. 
The  agronomist, 
therefore,  may  be  a 
student  or  an  inves- 
tigator of  problems  FlG-  I.  — Comparative  value  of  crops  in 
,  , .  ,  ,,  .,  the  United  States. 

relating  to  both  soil 

fertility  and  farm  crops,  or  he  may  confine  his  attention 
more  especially  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  branches. 
12.  Classification  of  field  crops.  —  For  convenience 
in  study  and  in  describing  general  methods  of  culture, 
the  various  field  crops  may  be  grouped  into  several  classes. 
The  classification  of  the  subject  which  will  be  followed  in 
this  book  divides  them  into  grain,  forage,'fiber,  root.  and; 
related  crops,  and  miscellaneous  crops.  In  this  classifi- 
cation the  grouping  of  the  crops  is  based  in  part  upon 
the  most  important  parts  of  the  plants,  and  in  part  upon 
the  uses  made  of  them.  This  method  of  classification, 


10  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

as  indeed  any  method  that  might  be  employed,  is  more  or 
less  general  and  several  irregularities  occur  in  it.  Thus 
the  grain  crops  are  usually  grown  for  their  grain,  but 
frequently  the  straw  is  used  for  forage,  and  sometimes  the 
entire  plant  is  so  used.  Sometimes,  too,  a  crop  may  be 
grown  for  one  purpose  in  one  place,  and  for  another  use 
in  another  locality.  Thus  flax,  which  has  been  grouped 
with  the  fiber  crops,  is  grown  in  some  places  entirely  for 
its  seeds,  in  which  case  it  should,  perhaps,  be  grouped 
with  the  grain  crops.  The  millets  are  likewise,  in  some 
countries,  grown  primarily  for  their  seed,  but  in  triis 
country  they  are  generally  used  for  forage.  In  a  general 
way,  however,  the  grouping  here  followed  will  indicate 
the  most  common  usage  of  the  crops,  but  mention  will 
usually  be  made  of  any  other  uses  to  which  they  may  be 
put.  The  relative  importance  of  the  various  crops  is 
shown  in  the  diagram. 

13.  The    grain   crops.  —  Grain    crops   are   crops    that 
are  grown  primarily  for  their  seed  or  grain.     This  term 
is  more  inclusive  than  the  term  "  cereals,"  which  is  defined 
as  any  grass  grown  for  its  edible  grain.     The  term  grain 
crops  is  used  to  include  all  crops  grown  for  their  grains, 
regardless  of  their  botanical  relationship.     The  cereals, 
however,   are  by  far  the  most  important  grain   crops, 
and  if  it  were  not  for  the  cereals,  this  group  would  have  a 
small  membership  and  a  rank  of  little  consequence,  instead 
of  being,  as  it  now  is,  the  most  valuable  and  useful  group 
of  field  crops. 

14.  The     forage    crops.  —  Forage     crops     are    those 
crops  grown  primarily  for  forage,  which  may  be  defined 
as  roughage  or  bulky  feed  for  domestic  animals.     The 
forage  crops  have  great  bulk  and  low  feeding  value  per 
unit  of  .weight  as  compared  with  the  grain  crops.    Forage 


INTRODUCTORY   VIEW 


11 


crops  may  be  cut  and  dried  before  feeding,  as  is  the  case 

with  hay  or  stover,  or  they  may  be  fed  green,  either  by 

allowing  the  animals  to  graze  upon  them,  or  by  cutting 

and  feeding  them  directly  from  the  field.     The  straw 

of  the  grain  crops  is  frequently  used  for  forage.     Forage 

crops,   however,   usually  mean  the   crops  in  which  the 

entire      above-ground 

part  of   the  plant   is 

used.     Almost  all   of 

the  important   forage 

crops     are     included 

in  the  membership  of 

two  botanical  families,    I      HAY 

namely,   the   Gramin- 

eae      and      Legumin- 

osse,    or    as   the   two 

groups  are  commonly 

called,  the  "  grasses  " 

and  "  legumes."    The 

forage  Crops  rank  next     FlG-  2.  — Six  leading  crops  of  the  United 
.        .  ,  States. 

to  the  grains  in  value 

and    acreage,    and    if  native    pasture    is    included,    the 

acreage  is  greater  than  that  of  the  grain  crops. 

15.  The  fiber    crops.  —  Fiber    crops    are  those    crops 
grown  for  their  fiber,  which  is  used  in  the  making  of 
textiles,  ropes,  twine,  and   the    like.     Cotton  is  by  far 
the  most  important  of  this  group  of  plants,  and  its  great 
acreage  and  value  give  to  the  fiber  crops  the  third  rank 
in  this  respect. 

16.  The    root  and    related    crops.  —  Root    crops    are 
those  crops  grown  for  their  enlarged  tap  roots.     Several 
other  crops  with  thickened  leaves  and  stems  which  re- 
semble  the   true   root   crops   in   their   composition   and 


12  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

feeding  values,  and  also  in  the  general  methods  of  their 
culture,  are  usually  included  in  this  class.  A  more 
detailed  explanation  will  be  found  in  the  introductory 
paragraph  of  the  chapter  on  root  crops. 

17.  Miscellaneous  crops.  —  Under  this  head  are  grouped 
all   farm   crops   not   included   in   any   of  the   preceding 
classes.     As  might  be  expected,  these  crops  vary  greatly 
in  their   botanical   relationship,  culture,  and  uses.     The 
two  principal  crops  of  this  group  are  the  potato,  which 
is  grown  for  the  tubers,  and  tobacco,  which  is  grown  for 
its  leaves  and  is  used  as  a  stimulant.     The  latter  is  not 
included  in  this  book. 

18.  Definition  of  terms.  —  Several  terms  are  employed 
in  field-crop  literature,  both    in   text-books  and  in  the 
agricultural   press,    that   should   be   defined.       Some   of 
them    refer    to    a    special    use   made   of   a   crop,  which 
may  be  a  member  of  any  of  the  general  groups  previously 
discussed,  but  usually  belongs  to  the  grain  or  forage 
crops. 

A  soiling  crop  is  one  that  is  cut  green  and  fed  green 
directly  from  the  field.  Thus  corn,  if  it  is  cut  and  thrown 
over  the  fence  to  animals,  or  fed  to  them  in  the  feed  lot, 
becomes  a  soiling  crop. 

A  green  manure  crop  is  one  that  is  grown  to  plow 
under  or  to  disk  into  the  soil  to  improve  the  physical 
condition  of  the  latter,  and  to  increase  its  fertility. 

A  cover  crop  is  one  that  is  seeded  so  as  to  make  a  growth 
to  cover  or  protect  the  soil  in  the  field  or  orchard  during 
the  winter. 

A  catch  crop  is  a  crop  sown  between  two  regular  crops. 
Thus,  if  rye  is  seeded  in  the  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last 
cultivation,  and  the  field  is  seeded  to  oats  or  some  other 
crop  in  the  spring,  the  rye  crop  may  be  defined  as  a  catch 


INTRODUCTORY   VIEW  13 

crop.  It  may  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a  cover  crop, 
or  as  a  green  manure  crop,  or  for  pasture,  or  for  all  three 
purposes. 

A  silage  crop  is  one  grown  for  the  silo.     Maize  is  the 
leading  crop  grown  for  this  use. 


CHAPTER   II 
CROP   ROTATION 

By  J.  F.  BARKER 
New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

WHEN  any  one  crop  is  grown  continuously  on  the  same 
field  for  a  number  of  years,  the  average  yield  is  almost 
sure  to  be  less  than  if  that  crop  had  been  grown  in  a  suit- 
able rotation  with  other  crops.  Thus  if  corn,  oats,  wheat, 
and  hay  are  grown  on  a  farm,  the  land  devoted  to  these 
crops  may  be  divided  into  five  fields  of  equal  size  and 
the  four  crops  changed  each  year  in  regular  order  from 
one  field  to  another,  except  that  hay  would  always  be 
grown  on  a  field  two  years  in  succession.  In  this  way 
better  average  yields  would  result  than  if  each  field  were 
devoted  to  one  crop  continuously.  This  principle  is 
recognized  in  greater  or  less  extent  by  nearly  all  practical 
farmers ;  but  the  following  epitomized  results  of  carefully 
conducted  field  experiments  bearing  upon  the  subject 
furnish  the  concrete  evidence  necessary  to  a  definite 
understanding  of  this  principle.  Such  results  are  of  more 
significance  than  any  amount  of  theory  or  generalized 
experience.  It  should  be  said,  in  explanation,  that  com- 
parisons of  rotative  and  continuous  cropping  are  here 
made  between  adjoining  or  near-by  fields  rather  than 
adjoining  plots.  The  figures  therefore  are  probably 
not  so  closely  comparable  as  in  fertilizer  tests.  But  con- 

14 


CROP  ROTATION 


15 


sidering  that  at  each  station  the  crops  in  rotation  and 
continuous  cropping  are  grown  on  the  same  type  of  soil 
having  practically  the  same  previous  treatment,  and  taking 
into  account  the  length  of  time  the  experiments  have  been 
in  progress,  the  comparisons  are  unquestionably  reliable 
to  a  close  degree. 

19.  Rotation  experiments  at  Rothamsted.  —  In  the 
Rothamsted  experiments,  wheat  grown  in  a  four-year 
rotation  gave  during  sixty  years  nearly  double  the  aver- 
age yield  per  acre  of  wheat  grown  continuously.  In  the 
case  of  barley  the  difference  is  also  very  great,  but  the 
yields  of  barley  in  rotation  have  fallen  off  more  rapidly 
than  wheat,  owing  to  the  latter  crop  coming  directly 
after  the  clover  and  so  getting  the  greater  benefit  of  the 
clover  sod. 


ROTHAMSTED   EXPERIMENT    STATION,    ROTHAMSTED,    ENGLAND 
(60  Years  of  Field  Experiments) 


WHEAT 

BARLEY 

Bu.  PER  ACRE 

Bu.  PER  ACRE 

First 

Second 

Third 

First 

Second 

Third 

20  yr. 

20  yr. 

20  yr. 

20  yr. 

20  yr. 

20  yr. 

Rotation  :  turnips,  bar- 

ley, clover,  wheat 

30 

21 

24 

38 

22 

14 

Rotation  :  turnips,  bar- 

ley, fallow,  wheat 

35 

23 

23 

37 

23 

16 

Continuous  culture  .     . 

16 

14 

12 

20 

13 

10 

The  yields  in  continuous  culture  have  fallen  off  most 
rapidly  during  the  first  few  years  of  the  experiment,  for 
at  the  outset  the  land  devoted  to  continuous  culture  was 


16  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

producing  fully  as  well  as  that  used  for  the  rotation  exper- 
iment. During  the  last  fifty  years  the  falling  off  under 
continuous  culture  has  been  comparatively  little  and  has 
now  reached  a  low  level  at  which  it  may  be  sustained 
almost  indefinitely.  This  is  what  usually  takes  place 
under  any  poor  system  of  farming ;  yields  fall  off  rapidly 
at  first  and  soon  reach  a  low  level  below  which  they  are 
not  easily  reduced.  Comparisons  here  have  been  made 
only  between  the  unfertilized  plots  in  the  two  systems  of 
cropping.  By  means  of  commercial  fertilizers  the  yields 
of  wheat  and  barley,  even  in  continuous  cropping, 
have  been  maintained  at  a  high  level.  But  the 
necessary  quantity  of  fertilizer  has  been  so  great  that 
the  increased  yields  resulting  from  their  use  have  not 
paid  the  cost.  Also,  when  the  fertilizers  are  used,  the 
crops  are  now  so  dependent  upon  them  that  if  they  are 
discontinued,  even  for  a  single  year,  the  yields  drop 
very  low. 

20.  Rotation  experiments  in  Iowa  and  Illinois.  —  A 
most  striking  example  of  the  rapid  decline  in  produc- 
tion under  continuous  cropping  is  shown  in  the  experiments 
with  corn  growing  at  both  the  Illinois  and  Iowa  experiment 
stations.  In  both  cases  the  fields  are  located  on  typical 
dark  brown  silt  loam  prairie  soil  which  at  the  outset  yields 
without  fertilization  70  to  80  bushels  of  corn  per  acre. 
The  Illinois  experiments  show  that  after  10  or  12  years  of 
continuous  corn  culture  the  yields  of  corn  on  this  soil  are 
reduced  to  about  35  bushels  per  acre.  Under  a  rotation 
of  corn  and  oats,  which  is  a  poor  rotation,  but  better  than 
a  single  crop,  the  yield  is  62  bushels.  Under  a  four-year 
rotation  of  corn,  corn,  oats,  and  clover  the  yield  is  66 
bushels.  The  corresponding  figures  for  a  similar  experi- 
ment on  a  smaller  scale  show  still  further  reduced  yields, 


CROP  ROTATION 


17 


but  the  reduction  in  the  last  16  years  has  been  going  on 
much  slower  than  at  first. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT  FIELD  AT  URBANA,  ILL. 
TYPICAL  CORN  BELT  PRAIRIE  SOIL 

(Three  years'  averages  :  bushels  per  acre) 


CROP  YEARS 

CROP  SYSTEM 

EXPERIMENTS  IN 
PROGRESS  13  YR. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN 
PROGRESS  29  YR. 

1905-6-7 

Corn  every  year 

35  bu. 

27  bu. 

1903-5-7 

Corn     and     oats 

rotation 

62  bu. 

46  bu. 

1901-4-7 

Corn,  oats,  clover 

rotation 

66  bu. 

58  bu. 

IOWA    AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT    STATION,    AMES,     IOWA. 
TYPICAL    CORN    BELT    PRAIRIE  SOIL 

(Figures  give  bushels  per  acre) 

Rotation  of  corn,  corn,  oats,  clover,  compared  with  continuous 

corn 


1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

Corn  in  rotation 

75 

87 

69 

57 

70 

54 

60 

44 

60 

Continuous     cul- 

ture   .... 

74 

73 

53 

47 

53 

31 

46 

32 

47 

The  results  from  nine  years  of  experiments  at  the  Iowa 
station  are  even  more  striking  than  those  from  Illinois. 
They  show  that,  while  each  system  started  out  with  a 
yield  of  approximately  75  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  con- 
tinuous cropping  never  after  the  first  year  produced  as 
much  by  ten  bushels  per  acre  as  in  a  four-year  rotation 
c 


18  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

of  corn,  corn,  oats,  and  clover.  Such  results  as  these, 
obtained  on  typical  corn  belt  prairie  soil  of  proverbial 
fertility,  furnish  overwhelming  evidence  against  the  one 
crop  system. 

21.  Rotation  experiments  in  Ohio.  —  Results  from  the 
Ohio  Station  furnish  much  additional  evidence  on  the 
subject  under  discussion;  they  also  throw  light  on 
certain  phases  of  the  question  with  which  the  others 
do  not  deal.  In  the  experiments  at  each  of  the  other 
three  stations  the  soil  at  the  outset  was  in  a  good 
state  of  productiveness,  yielding  without  fertilization, 
30  to  35  bushels  of  wheat  or  70  to  80  bushels  of  corn. 
At  the  Ohio  Station,  however,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiments  the  soil  was  in  a  badly  run  down  condition. 
It  had  been  subjected  for  a  half  century  or  more  to  an 
exhaustive  system  of  farming.  Also,  this  land  in  its 
virgin  state  was  not  so  productive  as  the  prairie  soils  of 
Iowa  and  Illinois  and  was  less  durable  than  the  Rotham- 
sted  lands.  Crop  yields,  therefore,  being  already  reduced 
to  rather  low  figures,  there  has  not  been  the  opportunity 
for  further  rapid  reductions  under  continuous  cropping. 
However,  on  unfertilized  land  the  average  acre  yields  for 
the  last  five  of  the  18  years  show  that  continuous  cropping 
has  reduced  the  yields  as  compared  with  the  rotation  in 
use  as  follows :  Corn  from  26  down  to  8  bushels  per  acre, 
oats  from  29  to  15  bushels,  and  wheat  from  14  to  6  bushels. 

It  is  worth  while  to  make  a  comparison  of  the  two 
systems  under  fertilizer  treatment.  There  being  no 
plots  in  either  of  the  two  systems  which  have  identical 
fertilizer  treatment,  certain  ones  have  been  selected  having 
the  same  kind  of  treatment  but  in  different  amounts,  and 
the  larger  applications  being  on  the  continuous  culture 
plats.  This  makes  the  comparison  all  the  more  striking 


CROP  ROTATION 


19 


since  the  more  heavily  fertilized  crops  under  continuous 
culture  give  lower  yields.  Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium  to  the  amounts  indicated  in  the  table  are  applied 
in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  dried  blood,  acid  phosphate, 
and  muriate  of  potash.  In  the  rotation  system  the  amount 
indicated  is  applied  only  once  in  five  years  and  is  divided 


OHIO  EXPERIMENT  FIELDS,  WOOSTER 

Experiments  in  progress  18  years,  1894-1911.     Rotation  of  corn, 
oats,  wheat,  hay,  hay,  compared  with  continuous  culture 


CORN 

OATS 

WHEAT 

First 
5  yr. 

Last 
5  yr. 

First 
5yr. 

Last 
Syr. 

First 
Syr. 

Last 
Syr. 

Treatment  for  each  five-year  period 

Unfertilized 

Rotation 

31 
36 

40 

26 
45 

47 

30 
38 
32 

29 
48 
39 

8 

14 
12 

14 

28 
26 

38  Ib.  N.,  30  Ib.  P.,  108  Ib.  K. 
8  tons  manure 

Treatment  for  each  year 

Unfertilized  

Continuous  Culture 

26 
45 
37 

8 
35 

18 

28 
42 
31 

15 
24 
23 

10 
20 
13 

6 
22 

17 

24  Ib.  N.,  10  Ib.  P.,  40  Ib.  K. 
2£  tons  manure  '    .     .     . 

between  the  corn  and  wheat.  In  the  single  crop  system 
the  application  shown  is  applied  every  year.  The  com- 
parative yields  for  the  last  five  years  are  as  follows,  the 
larger  being  always  for  the  rotation  system :  corn,  45  and 
35  bushels  per  acre,  oats,  48  and  24  bushels,  and  wheat, 
28  and  22  bushels.  Comparing  the  rotation  plots  receiv- 


20  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

ing  8  tons  of  manure  in  five  years  with  continuous  culture 
plots  receiving  12 \  tons  in  the  same  length  of  time,  we 
have  the  following  yields,  the  larger  always  in  favor  of 
the  rotation  system :  corn,  47  and  18  bushels,  oats,  39 
and  23,  and  wheat,  26  and  17.  Certainly  here  is  abundant 
data  to  show  that  even  with  liberal  fertilizing  crops  can- 
not be  grown  to  good  advantage  under  a  one  crop  system. 
22.  Why  rotation  gives  better  yields.  —  In  studying 
natural  phenomena  it  is  good  practice  first  to  make 
observations  and  gather  data  and  then  try  to  discover  the 
principles  which  underlie  the  working  of  these  phenomena. 
Having  obtained  definite  data  to  the  effect  that  a  rotation 
system  of  cropping  affords  better  yield  than  continuous 
culture,  we  next  ask  the  question,  why? 

(1)  Cultivated  crops  rapidly  deplete  the  organic  matter 
and  nitrogen  of  the  soil.     Cultivation  favors  rapid  oxida- 
tion and  destruction  of  organic  matter  with  the  consequent 
rapid  liberation  of  nitrogen.     Then,  too,  a  cultivated  crop 
leaves  very  little  in  the  way  of  roots  and  stubble  to  be 
added  to  the  stock  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil.     Erosion, 
both  by  wind  and  water,  is  much  more  rapid  when  a  few 
inches  of  the  surface  is  kept  loose  by  cultivation.     As  the 
organic  matter  and  nitrogen  is  found  mainly  in  the  surface 
soil,  it  is  rapidly  lost  when  erosion  is  accelerated.     Aside 
from  this  loss,  erosion  is,  of  course,  wasteful  of  the  best 
part  of  the  soil. 

(2)  Single  cropping  favors  insects  and  weeds.     Any  crop 
grown  on  the  same  ground  year  after  year  encourages  the 
presence  of  such  insects  and  in  some  cases  such  weeds  as 
prey  especially  on  that  crop.     This  is  one  of  the  worst 
troubles  in  continuous  corn  growing ;   the  corn  root  worm 
develops  badly  under  those  conditions.     In  the  continuous 
culture  of  wheat  at  the  Rothamsted  station  the  ground  at 


CROP  ROTATION  21 

one  time  became  so  foul  with  weeds  that  it  was  necessary 
to  devote  a  year  to  fallowing  before  another  crop  could  be 
grown. 

(3)  Legume   crops  help  out  on  the  nitrogen  supply. 
A  rotation  of  crops  gives  an  opportunity  to  include  some 
legume,  especially  clover  or  alfalfa,  which  will  leave  the 
soil  richer  in  nitrogen  than  before  the  crop  was  grown. 
If  one-fourth  or  more  of  the  rotation  is  devoted  to  one  of 
these  crops  and  if  a  part  of  the  crop,  as  well  as  the  roots 
and  stubble,  are  turned  under,  and  perhaps  also  an  occa- 
sional catch  crop  of  some  other  legume  is  plowed  under, 
it  is  possible  to  supply  in  this  way  sufficient  nitrogen  for 
all  the  other  crops  in  the  rotation,  and  thus  the  supply 
of  this  element  be  maintained  indefinitely.     It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  legumes  as  well  as  any  other 
plants  can  feed  upon  the  nitrogen  already  in  the  soil  and 
in  fact  always  take  a  part  of  their  supply  in  this  way,  so 
that  if  the  crop  is  entirely  removed  and  only  the  roots  and 
stubble  plowed  under,  the  soil  is  seldom  being  enriched  in 
nitrogen  and  may,  in  fact,  be  somewhat  reduced.     Clover, 
for  example,  is  known  to  take,  under  average  soil  condi- 
tions, about  one-third  of  its  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere. 
Now  the  roots  and  stubble  of  clover  seldom  amount  to 
more  than  one-third  of  the  crop,  and,  as  nitrogen  is  con- 
stantly being  lost  from  the  soil  by  leaching,  it  may  often 
happen  that  a  clover  crop  in  the  rotation  does  not  increase 
the  nitrogen  supply  at  all,  though,  of  course,  it  does  not 
deplete  this  supply  to  the  extent  of  a  non-legume  crop. 

(4)  Heavy  sods  supply  organic  matter.     Crops  such  as 
grasses,   and  clovers,   which  keep  the   surface  soil  well 
filled  with  a  mass  of  fibrous  roots,  increase  materially  the 
organic  matter  content  of  the  soil.     When  this  sod  is 
plowed  under,  the  soil  is  much  benefited  in  respect  to 


22  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

organic  matter;    also,  the  decaying  roots  render  the  soil 
looser  and  more  friable. 

(5)  A    rotation    alternates    deep    and    shallow   rooted 
crops.     Crops  that  send  their  roots  down  deeply  help 
to  prevent  a  compact  condition  of  the  subsoil  and  so 
maintain  better  drainage  and  a  better  moisture  reservoir. 
Also,  by  feeding  on  deeper  layers  of  soil  the  total  supply 
of  plant  food  is  more  economically  utilized.     It  is,  there- 
fore, advantageous  to  both  the  shallow  and  deeply  rooted 
crops  that  they  should  occasionally  alternate  with  one 
another. 

(6)  Influence  of  toxic  substances.     It  is  probably  true 
that  many  or  all  crops  excrete  or  leave  in  the  soil  certain 
organic  compounds  which  are  more  or  less  injurious  to 
succeeding  crops  of  the  same  kind,  but  are  less  harmful  or 
perhaps  not  at  all  so  to  other  crops.     In  certain  instances, 
however,  a  crop  is  thought  to  exert  a  more  toxic  effect 
on  another  growing  with  it  than  on  itself.     The  Duke 
of  Bedford  and  Spencer  U.   Pickering,  working  at  the 
Woburn  Experimental  Fruit  Farm  near  Bedford,  England, 
report  experiments  which  seem  to  prove  that  grass  has  a 
very  toxic  effect  on  fruit  trees.     They  demonstrate  that 
this  effect  is  entirely  separate  from  that  of  robbing  the 
trees  of  available  plant  food  and  moisture.     The  United 
States  Bureau  of   Soils  has   investigated  the   subject  of 
toxic  compounds  in  the  soil  to  an  elaborate  extent.     It 
has  shown  clearly  that  when  the  water  extract  from  a 
poor  soil  is  shaken  with  some  insoluble  absorbing  material 
such  as  finely  powdered  charcoal  and  then  filtered,  the 
filtrate   will   grow   better   plants    (in    aqueous   solution) 
than  the  original  extract.     Other  experiments  show  that 
the  extract  from  certain  poor  soils  will  not  grow  plants  so 
well  for  the  first  few  weeks  as  distilled  water.     Wheat 


CROP  ROTATION  23 

seedlings  do  not  grow  so  well  the  second  time  in  the  same 
solution,  although  the  nutrient  constituents  may  be 
maintained  at  the  same  concentration.  Certain  organic 
compounds  which  have  been  isolated  from  the  soil  and 
their  formulae  determined  are  demonstrated  to  produce  a 
toxic  effect  when  added  to  a  nutrient  solution  in  which 
young  plants  are  growing.  Those  who  have  investigated 
this  subject  most  thoroughly  believe  that  the  accumula- 
tion of  toxic  compounds  in  the  soil  is  an  important  factor 
in  the  rapid  decline  of  crops  growing  continuously  on  the 
same  land. 

Aside  from  the  question  of  crop  yields  there  are  other 
reasons  along  the  lines  of  economy  and  convenience  which 
make  it  preferable  to  rotate  a  series  of  crops  on  dif- 
ferent divisions  of  the  farm  rather  than  devote  separate 
fields  to  the  growth  of  each  crop  continuously.  Yet  it 
is  seldom  important  to  follow  year  after  year  a  rigid  rota- 
tion. In  fact,  if  a  four  or  six  year  rotation  is  adopted,  one 
is  likely,  for  some  good  reason  or  another,  to  make  some 
little  change  in  his  plans  before  more  than  one  cycle  of 
the  rotation  has  passed.  With  the  frequent  change  in 
value  of  crops  and  knowledge  of  important  new  crops 
come  changes  in  the  rotation  system.  It  is  important 
always  to  have  a  well-planned  rotation  under  way,  but 
one  should  not  hesitate  to  make  changes  that  are  in  the 
line  of  progress,  to  substitute  a  different  crop  for  one  that 
has  started  off  poorly,  or  occasionally  increase  the  acreage 
of  a  money  crop  at  the  expense  of  a  less  profitable  one, 
even  though  by  such  changes  he  may  never  actually 
complete  a  perfect  cycle  of  the  rotation  planned. 

23.  Planning  a  rotation.  —  Any  farm  of  good  size 
may  have  two,  three,  or  more  different  rotations  in  prog- 
ress, having  a  series  of  fields  set  apart  for  each  rotation. 


24  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

In  planning  these  rotations  the  first  thing  to  consider  is 
the  crops  one  desires  to  raise.  This  will  be  based  upon  the 
crops  most  profitable  for  the  locality,  and  best  adapted 
to  the  soil  in  question,  and  the  preferences  of  the  land 
owner.  These  crops  are  then  arranged  into  one  or  more 
suitable  rotations  in  such  a  way  as  best  to  meet  the  prob- 
lems of  maximum  yield,  economy  of  labor,  and,  in  short, 
greatest  net  profit;  considering  not  merely  the  present 
but  a  period  of  at  least  several  years.  It  may  very  often 
happen  that  to  plan  a  satisfactory  rotation  one  will  find 
it  advisable  to.  include  for  the  sake  of  the  rotation  a  crop 
which  in  itself  is  not  especially  desirable  or  profitable. 
Thus  some  farmers  say  they  would  not  grow  wheat  except 
that  it  makes  a  convenient  crop  with  which  to  seed  down 
to  meadow  or  pasture.  In  arranging  crops  in  a  rotation 
some  of  the  following  principles  may  well  be  kept  in  mind  : 

A  rotation  should  usually  contain  at  least  one  legume 
crop,  a  sod  producing  crop,  and  a  cultivated  crop.  Other 
crops  may  be  worked  in  with  these  as  desirable. 

A  long  rotation  with  a  great  variety  of  crops  may  be  the 
best  from  a  fertility  standpoint  but  is  seldom  practicable  to 
carry  out.  Usually  a  rotation  of  three  to  six  years  is  most 
suitable. 

Deep-rooted  crops  should  be  alternated  with  shallow 
rooted  crops  when  the  latter  are  to  be  grown. 

Potatoes  do  especially  well  following  a  clover  or  alfalfa 
sod  or  buckwheat  stubble.  Barnyard  manure  is  best 
applied  to  some  crop  a  year  previous  to  potatoes  rather 
than  the  same  season. 

Corn  is  a  rank  feeder  and  can  utilize  quantities  of  coarse 
manure  better  than  most  other  crops.  It  does  especially 
well  on  recently  turned  sod  ground. 

For  a  poor  soil  low  in  organic  matter,  a  four  or  five 


CROP  EOT  AT  ION  25 

year  rotation  containing  two  or  three  years  of  a  sod 
producing  legume  crop  is  desirable.  A  dark  colored, 
fertile  soil  may  well  grow  more  cultivated  and  small 
grain  crops. 

Buckwheat  or  flax  are  poor  crops  to  precede  a  small 
grain  crop.  There  is  apparently  some  injurious  effect 
produced  by  these  two  crops  which  is  entirely  separate 
from  any  question  of  plant  food  or  physical  condition  of 
the  soil. 

Wheat  does  well  following  a  cultivated  crop  and  espe- 
cially well  if  this  is  a  legume  such  as  beans  or  peas.  Oat 
stubble  is  a  good  site  for  wheat  if  the  ground  is  prepared 
immediately  after  the  oats  are  off. 

Alfalfa  should  be  sown  without  a  nurse  crop.  Most 
grasses  and  clover,  if  sown  in  the  spring,  do  best  with  a 
nurse  crop.  Wheat,  barley,  or  oats  make  a  good  nurse 
crop. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  arrange  a  place  or  two  in  the  rota- 
tion for  short  time  catch  crops  to  be  plowed  under  as 
green  manure  or  source  of  nitrogen  supply. 

24.  Rotation  does  not  maintain  fertility.  —  Although 
much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  crop  rotation,  we  need  to 
guard  against  the  erroneous  impression  that  a  systematic 
rotation  of  crops  is  in  itself  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  insure  good  crop  yields  indefi- 
nitely. This  theory  has  gained  acceptance  by  some  and 
has  occasionally  found  expression  in  magazines  and  farm 
papers.  The  advocates  of  this  theory  provide  only 
that  the  rotation  include  crops  adapted  to  the  soil  in 
question,  that  some  legume  be  grown,  and  that  good  culti- 
vation and  drainage  be  provided.  The  data  given  in 
the  early  part  of  this  chapter  is  convincing  evidence 
against  any  such  teaching. 


26  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

In  the  four-year  rotation  at  Rothamsted  wheat  yields 
were  not  sustained,  although  that  crop  immediately  fol- 
lowed the  clover.  Barley,  occupying  a  less  favorable 
place  in  the  rotation,  declined  during  40  years  from  38 
to  14  bushels.  The  decline  in  yield  of  turnips  and  clover 
was  even  more  striking. 

In  the  Illinois  experiments  the  rich  virgin  soil  of  the 
corn  belt  has  under  a  favorable  rotation  declined  in  pro- 
ductiveness during  29  years  from  more  than  70  bushels 
of  corn  per  acre  to  an  average  of  58.  Even  during  13 
years  the  yields  have  not  been  sustained.  On  the  rich 
prairie  soils  of  Iowa  corn  yields  have  noticeably  declined 
during  a  period  of  nine  years  under  a  similar  rotation. 
At  the  Ohio  station,  beginning  with  a  poor,  run  down  soil, 
a  favorable  five-year  rotation  has,  during  a  period  of  18 
years,  somewhat  improved  the  yield  of  wheat  and  main- 
tained the  production  of  oats,  although  the  corn  crop 
has  declined.  However,  there  is  no  evidence  here  that 
anything  like  satisfactory  crop  yields  can  be  maintained 
by  rotation. 

From  the  Pennsylvania  experiment  station  25  years  of 
crop  yields  are  reported,  the  rotation  being  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  and  hay  (clover  and  timothy).  Comparing  the 
average  of  the  first  twelve  years  with  the  average  of  the 
second  twelve,  we  find  that  where  no  fertilizer  has  been 
added  the  yield  of  corn  has  declined  from  42  bushels  per 
acre  for  the  first  period  to  28  bushels  for  the  second. 
Oats  in  this  time  has  dropped  from  37  to  25  bushels. 
Wheat  has  given  the  low  yield  of  about  13  bushels  for 
both  periods.  Hay  has  dropped  from  Ij  tons  to  1  ton 
per  acre. 

All  the  above  are  results  from  carefully  conducted  experi- 
ments and  are  fair  examples  of  what  a  good  rotation 


CROP  ROTATION  27 

together  with  good  cultivation  and  tile  drainage  can  do 
towards  keeping  up  soil  fertility  and  maintaining  satis- 
factory crop  yields.  A  rotation  of  crops  reduces  the 
plant  food  supply  in  the  soil  (excepting  nitrogen)  even 
more  rapidly  than  the  one  crop  system,  and  to  maintain 
good  crop  yields  under  rotation  requires  the  addition  of 
mineral  fertilizers  or  the  application  of  liberal  amounts  of 
farm  manure.  On  the  average  farm  the  problem  will  be 
best  solved  by  using  a  certain  amount  of  each.  But  to 
go  into  this  phase  of  the  subject  more  in  detail  properly 
belongs  to  a  text-book  on  soil  fertility. 

25.  Suggested  rotations.  —  The  following  are  exam- 
ples of  rotations  commonly  recommended  or  in  frequent 
use : 

Corn,  oats,  clover. 

Corn,  wheat,  clover. 

Corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover. 

Corn,  corn,  oats,  clover. 

Corn,  corn,  oats,  clover,  wheat,  clover. 

Corn,  oats,  wheat,  hay,  hay  (mixed  clover  and  timothy). 

Potatoes,  wheat,  clover. 

Potatoes,  wheat,  alfalfa,  alfalfa. 

Cowpeas  (or  soy  beans),  wheat,  hay,  hay  (mixed). 

Alfalfa  4  years,  corn  2  years,  oats  or  wheat  1  or  2  years. 

Corn,  corn,  oats,  hay  (clover  and  timothy),  pasture. 

Oats  (or  barley),  beans,  wheat,  hay. 

Corn,  barley,  wheat,  clover  and  timothy  1  or  2  years. 

Rye,  hay,  potatoes,  oats  or  barley. 

Wheat,  hay,  potatoes,  beans. 

Tobacco,  rye  or  wheat,  clover. 

In  almost  any  of  the  above  rotations  one  or  two  catch 
crops  may  be  grown  and  plowed  under  without  adding 


28  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

a  year  to  the  rotation.  Thus  where  corn  is  followed  by 
a  spring  crop  such  as  oats,  the  farmer  may  sow  cowpeas, 
soy  beans,  clover,  or  vetch  in  the  corn  at  last  cultivation 
and  plow  it  under  the  following  spring.  Where  oats, 
wheat,  or  barley  is  followed  by  a  cultivated  crop  to  be  put 
in  late  the  next  spring,  an  even  better  opportunity  is  offered 
for  a  catch  crop. 


CHAPTER  III 
CORN  OR  MAIZE 

HISTORIANS  tell  us  that  when  Columbus  landed  in 
Hayti  in  1492  he  found  the  natives  growing  a  plant  which 
they  called  Mahiz.  So  unusual  was  this  plant  that  ears  of 
it  were  among  the  numerous  presents  taken  back  to  Spain 
and  presented  to  the  queen  as  trophies  of  the  new  world. 
Columbus  called  the  plant  maize  after  the  Indian  name,  or 
Indian  corn,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  corn  plants  of  the 
Old  World.  Writings  of  the  early  explorers  of  America 
tell  us  that  maize  or  Indian  corn  was  one  of  the  staples 
of  primitive  agriculture  at  the  time  of  their  explorations. 
One  of  the  first  Spanish  explorers  to  visit  Mexico  wrote 
extensively  about  the  culture  of  corn  by  the  native  Indian 
tribes,  who  were  growing  it  around  their  temporary 
dwellings,  making  use  of  it  in  various  ways.  The  account 
includes  a  description  of  several  kinds  of  cakes  and  breads, 
and  also  tells  of  both  fermented  and  unfermented  drinks 
made  from  it.  All  students  of  American  history  are 
familiar  with  the  important  part  played  by  this  cereal 
in  the  lives  of  the  early  English  colonists.  That  corn  was 
grown  a  long  time  before  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus  is  evident  from  the  discovery  of  the  ears  in  the 
burial  mounds  of  the  prehistoric  tribes  of  Ohio,  of  the 
cliff  dwellers  of  southwestern  United  States,  and  in  the 
mounds  left  by  the  early  tribes  that  inhabited  the  west 


30  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

coast  of  Peru  in  South  America.  Almost  all  authorities 
believe  that  corn  is  a  native  of  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
probably  having  its  origin  in  what  is  now  Mexico.  Corn 
was  not  known  in  the  Old  World  until  after  the  discovery 
of  America.  It  seems  to  have  been  first  introduced  into 
the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean,  possibly 
by  a  ship  sailing  in  from  America  and  stopping  at  the 
various  ports  of  the  countries  along  the  coast.  From 
these  ports  it  spread  into  adjoining  countries,  and  car- 
ried with  it  the  name  of  the  country  from  which  it  was 
introduced.  Thus  it  was  known  by  such  names  as  Span- 
ish wheat,  Italian  wheat,  Egyptian  wheat,  Turkish 
corn,  Barbary  wheat,  and  other  similar  titles.  The 
names  thus  received  have  sometimes  led  to  confusion  as 
to  its  origin.  When  first  introduced  into  these  and  adjoin- 
ing countries,  it  spread  rapidly ;  but  its  usefulness  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  appreciated,  excepting  in  Spain 
and  Portugal ;  elsewhere  it  was  grown  as  a  curiosity  until 
the  last  century. 

26.  Botanical    characters.  —  Corn,    Zea    Mays,    is    a 
large  rank  growing  plant,  belonging  to  the  genus  Zea  of 
the  grass  family.     It  has  no  close  relatives  either  among 
cultivated  or  wild  grasses,  and  it  is  therefore  quite  different 
from  the  other  familiar  cereals  as  to  the  structure  and 
arrangements  of  its  parts,  and  in  many  other  respects. 
On  account  of  its  sensitiveness  to  frost,  corn  cannot  be 
planted  so  that  it  will  make  part  of  its  growth  in  the  fall, 
live  over  the  winter  like  wheat  or  rye,  and  complete  its 
growth  and  produce  seed  the  following  spring  and  summer. 
It  is  therefore  called  a  spring  annual. 

27.  The  roots.  —  The  roots  of  the  corn  plant  may  be 
divided  into  three  separate  groups,  namely,  the  temporary, 
the  permanent  feeding  roots,  and  the  brace  roots.   When  the 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  31 

kernel  is  placed  in  the  ground,  with  conditions  favorable  for 
growth,  a  root  shoot  called  the  hypocotyl  rapidly  pushes 
downward  into  the  soil.  Soon  two  or  three  branches  grow 
out  from  the  base  of  the  hypocotyl.  These  are  somewhat 
smaller,  and  usually  grow  out  laterally  from  the  seed.  These 
roots  with  their  branches  form  the  temporary  root  system. 
They  make  their  growth  largely  from  the  food  that  is 
stored  up  in  the  kernel,  and  their  function  is  chiefly  that 
of  supplying  water  to  the  young  plant.  While  the  tem- 
porary roots  are  being  formed,  the  plumule  is  pushing  up 
through  the  soil  and  finally  unfolds  its  leaves  above  the 
ground.  About  the  time  the  leaves  are  unfolding,  another 
group  of  roots  begins  to  grow  from  the  lowest  node  of  the 
plumule,  usually  about  one  inch  below  the  ground,  al- 
though if  the  soil  is  cloddy  and  dried  out  some  distance 
below  the  surface,  the  node  forms  deeper  in  the  soil. 
This,  the  permanent  root  system,  is  formed  near  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  regardless  of  the  depth  of  planting.  Thus 
we  see  that  deep  planting  will  not  insure  deep  root  system 
as  many  are  inclined  to  believe.  The  roots  of  the  perma- 
nent system  grow  out  laterally  for  some  distance  before 
turning  downward.  This  system  is  not  made  up  of  a 
great  number  of  single  roots,  but  rather  is  it  a  complex 
group,  since  each  root  gives  off  many  branches  from  which 
in  turn  spring  other  branches,  and  so  on  until  finally  the 
last  branches  are  tiny  rootlets.  Most  of  the  branches  are 
in  the  first  15  to  20  inches  of  the  soil,  and  only  a  few  are 
sent  down  deep  into  the  ground.  The  roots  grow  very 
rapidly  at  first,  more  rapidly  than  does  the  plumule. 
Hunt  reports  a  plant  only  one-half  inch  high,  with  root 
and  branches  measuring  8  inches  in  length,  and  one  3 
inches  high  with  root  measuring  13  inches  in  length.  So 
rapidly  do  they  grow  that  under  favorable  conditions  the 


32  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

roots  of  plants  35  or  40  days  old  will  meet  between  the 
rows,  and  when  the  corn  is  in  tassel,  they  will  reach  into 
almost  every  inch  of  the  upper  soil.  The  depth  to  which 
the  roots  will  penetrate  depends  largely  upon  the  position 
of  the  water  table  and  upon  the  texture  of  the  soil.  In 
loose,  fertile  soil  they  have  been  known  to  penetrate  5  or 
more  feet,  and  even  in  clay  soils  they  will  extend  as  far  as 
4  feet  into  the  ground.  When  the  permanent  root  system 
is  well  started,  the  temporary  system  withers  and  dies, 
since  its  period  of  usefulness  is  ended. 

The  brace  roots  spring  from  the  first,  second,  third,  and 
sometimes  from  the  fourth  node  above  the  ground.  They 
are  so  called  because  their  chief  function  is  to  form  braces 
or  props,  to  prevent  the  plant  from  being  blown  over. 
When  wind  or  rain  bends  the  plants  over,  brace  roots  are 
rapidly  produced  from  the  side  of  the  node  nearest  the 
ground,  to  prevent  succeeding  storms  from  laying  them 
low.  Usually  when  the  plant  stands  upright,  the  brace 
roots  do  not  grow  very  long,  if  at  all,  although  they  some- 
times do  when  the  plant  is  favored  with  good  growing 
weather,  or  by  very  fertile  soil.  The  portion  of  the  brace 
root  above  the  ground  is  considerably  enlarged  and  is 
dark  green  in  color.  Those  which  enter  the  ground  are 
reduced  in  size  there,  and  perform  the  same  function  as 
the  underground  roots. 

28.  The  stem  or  culm.  —  The  stem  of  the  corn  plant, 
unlike  that  of  wheat  and  oats,  is  filled  with  pith.  It 
differs  also  from  the  culm  of  the  other  cereals,  in  the  shape 
of  the  internodes,  which,  with  the  exception  of  those  near 
the  top,  are  slightly  flattened  or  grooved  on  the  side  next 
to  the  leaf  sheath.  Where  an  ear  is  developing,  the  inter- 
node  beside  it  is  greatly  flattened,  or  even  becomes  curved 
to  make  further  room  for  the  growing  ear.  Corn  stalks 


CORN  OB  MAIZE  33 

vary  greatly  in  height.  Even  in  the  same  field  we  may 
find  the  plants  growing  in  fertile  bottom  soil  several  feet 
taller  than  those  growing  on  the  less  fertile  soils  of  the  up- 
land or  hillside.  The  growth  is  likewise  influenced  by 
the  amount  of  sunshine,  rainfall,  and  length  of  the  growing 
season.  Some  varieties  of  corn  naturally  grow  taller  than 
others,  even  when  they  are  grown  side  by  side.  Early 
maturing  varieties  are  usually  smaller  than  those  maturing 
later.  The  average  height  of  most  varieties  is  from  8  to  15 
feet,  although  some  small  types,  such  as  pop  corn  and 
sweet  corn,  grow  from  4  to  10  feet  high,  while  some  other 
types  sometimes  reach  a  height  of  20  to  25  feet. 

29.  The  leaves.  —  Since  corn  is  a  large,  rank-growing 
plant,  it  needs  a  great  expanse  of  leaf  surface  to  afford 
room  for  the  combining  of  the  necessary  amount  of  the 
elements  of  plant  food  required  for  its  growth.  Therefore 
the  leaves  of  the  corn  plant  are  much  broader  and  longer 
than  those  of  the  smaller  growing  cereals.  The  width 
of  the  leaf  varies  greatly  in  different  types  and  varieties,' 
and  with  individual  plants  of  the  same  variety.  Continu- 
ous selection  of  seed  for  a  few  years  from  plants  having 
wide  leaves  has  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  wide  leafed 
strain,  which  is  well  adapted  %  for  forage  or  for  use  in  the 
silo.  The  number  of  leaves  on  a  growing  plant  varies 
from  10  to  20.  A  leaf  grows  from  each  node  of  the  stalk, 
but  the  lower  leaves  seldom  grow  to  maturity,  since  many 
are  broken  off  during  cultivation,  or  they  wither  and  die. 
Usually  not  more  than  12  or  14  are  growing  at  one  time. 
One  can  scarcely  realize  what  a  large  surface  is  exposed 
by  the  leaves  of  a  single  corn  plant.  At  the  Missouri 
Experiment  Station,  the  exposed  surface  of  twelve  growing 
leaves  of  a  single  plant  was  found  to  be  24  square  feet, 
from  which  it  may  be  seen  that  the  total  leaf  surface 


34  FIELD    CROP  PRODUCTION 

exposed  by  a  field  of  corn  would  be  several  times  the  area  on 
which  the  plants  stand.  At  maturity  about  20  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  plant  is  leaf,  although  earlier  in  the 
period  of  growth  the  percentage  of  leaf  is  greater.  The 
decrease  during  the  ripening  period  is  due  in  part  to  loss 
of  lower  leaves  and  in  part  to  the  transfer  of  food  to  the 
developing  ear. 

30.  The  flowers.  —  Cultivated  corn  bears  its  flowers  on 
two  separate  parts  of  the  plant,  this  feature  distinguishing 
it  from  the  other  cereals.  The  male  or  staminate  flowers 
are  borne  in  spikelets  arranged  on  a  branched  tassel  on 
the  top  of  the  stalk.  The  tassel,  which  is  usually  from 
5  to  12  inches  long,  is  made  up  of  a  central  branch,  and 
of  from  eight  to  ten  lateral  branches,  growing  out  near  the 
base  of  the  central  branch.  The  spikelets  each  contain 
two  flowers,  which,  when  mature,  dangle  the  anthers  on 
long  filaments  over  the  edge  of  the  glumes,  permitting 
the  pollen  to  be  spread  by  the  breeze.  Have  you  not  often 
wondered  why  there  is  always  an  even  number  of  rows 
on  an  ear  of  corn?  It  is  because  the  female  or  pistillate 
flowers  are  borne  in  spikelets  which  are  arranged  in  pairs 
on  the  cob.  Each  of  the  spikelets  has  two  flowers,  but 
one  flower  in  each  does  not  develop.  Thus  in  reality 
there  is  but  one  fertile  flower  in  each  spikelet,  and  since 
the  latter  are  arranged  in  pairs,  two  rows  of  kernels 
develop  together.  The  style  or  silk  extends  from  the 
ovulary  to  beyond  the  end  of  the  husk,  bearing  a  stigma 
covered  with  a  sticky  substance  to  catch  the  pollen.  The 
silks  from  the  lower  ovules  are  the  first  to  appear  beyond 
the  husk,  and  therefore  are  the  first  to  be  fertilized,  so 
that  the  first  kernels  to  appear  on  the  ear  are  at  the  base 
of  the  cob.  After  fertilization  has  taken  place,  the  style 
withers  and  dies.  In  some  varieties  of  corn  there  may  be 


CORN  OB  MAIZE 


35 


seen  a  scar  on  the  kernel,  showing  the  former  attachment 
of  the  silk.  The  number  of  pollen  grains  produced  by  the 
flowers  of  a  single  tassel  has  been  estimated  at  about  18 
millions,  or  about  9000  pollen  grains  to  each  ovule.  So 


FIG.  3.  —  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  of  the  corn  plant. 

we  find  that  nature  has  made  a  liberal  provision  of  pollen 
in  order  to  insure  that  one  grain  of  the  thousand  produced 
will  effect  the  fertilization  of  the  ovary.  Extremely  hot 
winds  may  so  injure  the  pollen  grains  as  to  make  them 


36  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

incapable  of  fertilization,  and  likewise  are  heavy  rains 
unfavorable,  since  the  water  washes  the  pollen  to  the 
ground.  The  corn  plant  is  cross-pollinated  or  wind- 
pollinated.  Self-pollination  has  been  rendered  difficult  by 
the  position  of  the  male  and  female  flowers,  the  anthers 
being  so  placed  that  a  light  breeze  is  necessary  to  spill  the 
pollen,  which  will  insure  its  being  carried  away  to  other  corn 
plants.  Another  provision  made  by  nature  to  prevent 
self-pollination  is  that  the  silk  almost  always  matures 
after  the  pollen  of  that  plant  is  shed.  A  single  corn  plant 
out  of  reach  of  pollen  from  other  corn  plants  usually  has 
either  a  few  scattered  grains  on  the  ear,  or  no  grains  are 
produced  at  all. 

31.  The  ear.  —  The  ear  is  carried  on  a  short  shank  or 
branch  growing  from  a  node  between  the  leaf  sheath  and 
the  culm.  The  shank  is  made  up  of  several  short  inter- 
nodes,  from  each  of  which  grows  a  husk,  and  these,  overlap- 
ping, form  the  covering  of  the  ear.  When  the  shank  is 
short,  the  ear  stands  upright ;  but  if  it  is  long,  the  ear  tips 
over  and  at  maturity  points  downward.  In  fertile  soil  or 
in  favorable  growing  seasons,  ear  shoots  may  start  from 
several  nodes,  but  usually  only  one  or  two  develop.  The 
top  one  develops  first,  and  if  it  is  removed  the  one  below  it 
grows  to  maturity.  Some  varieties,  especially  those  grown 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  often  produce 
two  or  more  ears  per  stalk.  Most  of  the  varieties  grown 
in  the  Northern  States  produce  but  one  ear,  but  in  thinly 
planted  fields  or  in  favorable  seasons,  two  ears  per  stalk 
are  quite  commonly  found.  There  is  great  variation  in 
the  size  of  the  ears  and  in  the  number  of  rows  of  grain. 
The  ears  vary  in  length,  from  one  inch  in  certain  varieties 
of  pop  corn,  to  as  much  as  16  inches  in  some  of  the  larger 
varieties  of  dent  corn.  The  number  of  rows  of  grain  varies 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  37 

from  eight  in  the  flint  to  as  many  as  24  or  more  in  the 
dent  corn. 

32.  The  kernel.  —  After  fertilization  has  taken  place, 
the  kernel  begins  to  develop.  At  first  it  appears  much  like 
a  water  blister,  but  after  a  few  weeks  it  has  greatly  in- 
creased in  size  and  contains  a  milky  fluid.  This  is  called 
the  "  milk  "  stage,  and  at  this  time  it  has  a  sweet  taste, 
due  to  the  presence  of  sugar  which  is  later  changed  to 
starch.  From  the  milk  stage  it  gradually  changes,  with 
the  ripening  of  the  plant,  to  the  "  dough  "  stage,  and  finally 
at  maturity  it  becomes  firm  and  dry.  An  examination  of  the 
mature  corn  kernel  will  show  that  it  is  made  up  of  several 
distinct  parts.  If  the  kernel  is  soaked  in  warm  water  for 
half  an  hour,  it  can  be  separated  into  the  tip  cap,  the 
hull,  the  aleurone  layer  and  endosperm,  and  the  germ.  The 
tip-cap  and  the  hull  are  the  outside  coverings  of  the  kernel. 
The  tip-cap  is  located  at  the  tip  of  the  kernel  and  serves 
to  attach  it  to  the  cob  and  also  to  protect  the  tip  end  of 
the  germ.  The  hull  is  made  up  of  three  distinct  thin 
layers,  which  are  separated  only  with  difficulty.  They 
are  composed  largely  of  woody  fiber  and  of  gum,  which 
keeps  the  kernel  from  drying  out.  The  hull  and  the  tip- 
cap  taken  together  make  up  about  7  per  cent  of  the  kernel. 
The  aleurone  layer,  lying  directly  beneath  the  hull,  is  made 
up  of  a  single  layer  of  thick  cells,  and  comprises  8  to  14 
per  cent  of  the  corn  kernel.  Immediately  under  the 
aleurone  layer  lies  the  endosperm,  which  makes  up  about 
70  per  cent  of  the  grain.  It  is  composed  largely  of  starch 
cells,  which  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  the  hard  or  horny 
starch,  and  the  soft  or  white.  In  some  types  of  corn  both 
kinds  are  present,  while  in  other  types  we  find  only  one 
of  the  two  kinds.  Lying  at  the  front  of  the  kernel,  that  is, 
facing  the  tip  of  the  ear,  is  the  germ.  Starting  at  the  tip, 


38  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

it  extends  sometimes  two-thirds  of  the  distance  to  the 
crown,  and  makes  up  from  7  to  15  per  cent  of  the  kernel. 
It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  scutellum  and  the  growing 
portion.  The  latter  is  divided  into  the  plumule  and  the 
radicle. 

The  color  of  the  grain,  in  the  case  of  white  or  yellow 
corn,  is  determined  by  the  color  of  the  endosperm  and  the 
aleurone  layer.  In  the  blue,  purple  or  black,  it  is  due  to 
the  color  of  the  aleurone  layer  only,  while  in  red  corn  the 
color  pigment  is  found  in  the  hull,  and  the  endosperm 
may  be  either  white  or  yellow. 

33.  Ancestors  of  the  corn  plant.  —  Some  of  our  culti- 
vated grains  can  be  traced  back  to  a  time  when  their 
ancestors  were  growing  wild  in  uncultivated  lands.  With 
the  corn  plant  this  has  not  been  possible,  since  no  wild 
types  nor  any  very  close  relatives  have  been  found.  One 
of  its  nearest  relatives  is  a  plant  called  teosinte,  a  forage 
plant  that  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  favored  sections  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  This  plant  produces  many 
branches,  sometimes  as  many  as  forty  or  fifty  coming 
from  a  single  seed.  At  the  end  of  the  branches  are 
tassels  on  which  the  grains  are  produced. 

Those  of  us  who  have  worked  in  the  corn  field,  in  cutting 
or  husking,  have  seen  individual  corn  plants  which  show 
great  variation  from  corn  plants  in  general.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  a  corn  plant  with  grains  in  the  tassel. 
Less  frequently,  perhaps,  do  we  find  branching  corn  plants, 
each  branch  carrying  an  ear.  If  we  have  been  close 
observers,  we  have  often  seen  appendages  attached  to  the 
tip  of  the  husk,  closely  resembling  the  blade  of  a  leaf. 
Why  do  we  find  these  variations?  Might  it  not  be  that 
these  plants  show  a  reversion,  or  a  striking  back  to  the 
original  wild  type?  This  is  thought  to  be  true  by  some 


CORN  OR  MAIZE 


39 


botanists  and  agronomists.     Corn  has  been  successfully 
crossed  with  teosinte  and  the  progeny  resembles  both 
parents.     From  the  study  of  these  interesting  variations 
Professor  Montgomery  has  explained  the  origin  of  the 
corn  plant  in  the  following  way  : 
The    ancestors    of   the    corn 
plant  were  probably  plants  hav- 
ing many  branches  like  teosinte, 
and  were  the  result  of  a  cross 
of    teosinte    on    some    similar 
plant,  or  the  progeny  of  a  sport 
of   teosinte    crossed   with    the 
common  form.     In  either  case 
the    original    corn  •  plant    had 
branches  coming  from  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.     At  the  end  of 
these     branches    were    tassels 
similar  to  those  found  on  field 
corn.     They  differed  from  the 
corn  tassel  in  that  both   male 
and  female  flowers    were    pro- 
duced,   and   after    fertilization 
grains    developed.      Thus    the 
occasional   plant  that  we  find 
in  a  field  of  corn  having  grains 
in  the  tassel  is  a  reversion  to 
the    original    form.       At    first 
both  male  and  female   flowers 
were  produced  in  the  tassel  of  each  branch.     But  the 
highest  tassel,  the  one  on  the  main  stalk,  was  not  well 
located  to  receive  pollen,  since  the  pollen  would  naturally 
be  carried  downward,  while  those  on  the  lower  branches 
were  in  a  favorable  position  to  receive  pollen  but  not  in  a 


FIG.  4.  —  An  ear  of  dent 
corn,  with  small  ears  clustered 
at  the  base,  showing  reap- 
pearance of  lateral  branches. 


40 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


position  to  pollinate  those  higher 
up.  Thus  the  female  flowers 
on  the  upper  tassel  were  in- 
completely fertilized,  if  fertilized 
at  all,  and  due  to  the  loss  of 
function  gradually  disappeared, 
so  that  after  a  time  only  male 
flowers  were  produced.  On  the 
tassels  of  the  lower  branches, 
the  male  or  pollen  producing 
flowers  gradually  lost  their  use- 
fulness, and  after  a  time  only 
female  flowers  were  produced 
on  these  branches. 

After  the  disappearance  of  the 
male  flowers  from  the  lower 
branches,  the  central  spike  of 
each  tassel  developed  into  what 
is  now  the  cob,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  lateral  branches  grad- 
ually disappeared.  Some  proof 
of  this  assumption  is  to  be  found 
in  the  frequent  occurrence  of  an 
ear  developed  in  the  usual  way, 
but  with  five  or  six  small  ears 
clustered  at  the  base.  The  small 
ears  are  probably  due  to  the 
reappearance  of  the  lateral 
branches  of  the  original  tassel. 
After  the  development  of  the 
central  spike  of  the  tassel  into 
the  ear,  the  load  carried  at  the 
end  of  the  branch  was  greatly  increased  in  weight.  In  order 


FIG.  5. — A  branching 
corn  plant  grown  in  Ohio, 
perhaps  a  reversion  to  an 
ancestral  form. 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  41 

to  overcome  the  inconvenience  of  carrying  a  heavy  load 
at  the  end  of  a  long  branch,  nature  gradually  shortened 
the  internodes  of  the  branches,  thus  reducing  them  in 
length,  until  now  the  ear  is  carried  on  a  short  branch  near 
the  main  stalk.  As  the  branches  were  shortened,  the  nodes 
were  brought  close  together,  thus  causing  the  leaf  sheaths 
to  overlap  or  telescope.  The  leaf  sheaths  thus  telescoped 
form  the  husks  that  cover  the  ear.  During  the  time  that 
the  branches  were  becoming  shorter,  the  leaf  blades  were 
gradually  disappearing,  and  now  in  most  cases  only  the 
sheath  remains.  Very  frequently,  however,  we  find 
husks  with  quite  long  blades  on  them.  This  is  a  reversion 
to  the  original  form  when  the  shank  was  a  long  branch, 
and  leaves  were  produced  on  it  as  they  now  are  on  the 
main  stalk. 

The  corn  plant  formerly  produced  several  branches 
each  carrying  a  small  ear,  but  through  the  centuries 
that  it  has  been  cultivated  by  man,  he  has  selected  large 
ears  for  seed  which  were  probably  produced  on  plants 
having  few  branches,  and  has  in  this  way  developed  plants 
that  produce  one  or  two  large  ears  rather  than  several 
small  ones.  However,  it  is  not  infrequent  that  we  find 
corn  plants  with  two,  three,  and  in  rare  cases  four  or  five 
ears.  If  we  could  catch  hold  of  these  ears  and  pull  the 
shank  out,  extending  the  internodes  so  that  they  would 
be  the  same  length  as  those  of  the  main  stalk,  we  would 
have  a  branched  corn  plant,  similar  in  this  respect  to  the 
original  form. 

TYPES   OF   CORN 

Zea  Mays  has  been  divided  into  six  distinct  types  or 
classes.  The  character  and  arrangement  of  the  endo- 
sperm is  the  principal  basis  for  this  division.  In  the 


42 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


different  types  we  find  variations  in  the  shape  of  the  kernel 
and  the  manner  of  growth  of  the  plant. 

34.  Dent  corn.  —  Dent  corns  have  the  hard  or  horny 
endosperm  arranged  along  the  sides  of  the  kernel  and  the 
white  or  soft  endosperm  surrounding  the  germ  on  three 
sides  and  extending  to  the  crown.  Thus  the  horny  endo- 
sperm forms  rigid  sides  to  the  kernel,  while  the  center, 
being  composed  of  soft  endosperm  containing  a  large 
amount  of  water,  shrinks  more 
rapidly  than  the  sides  and  causes 
a  dent  in  the  crown  at  maturity. 
Because  of  this  dent  in  the  crown, 
the  class  is  called  dent  corn.  The 
degree  of  the  dent  is  largely  due 
to  the  proportion  of  soft  to  hard 
endosperm.  Dent  corn  is  char- 
acterized by  its  deep  and  usually 
wedged  shaped  grains,  large  di- 
ameter of  the  ear  and  large  num- 
ber of  rows  of  kernels.  There  is 
of  course  great  variation  in  the 
height  of  the  plant,  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  ear,  and  the  like,  due  to  variety  differences 
or  to  environment.  Usually  only  one  ear  is  produced 
on  each  stalk,  but  when  planted  thinly  or  on  very  fertile 
land,  two  and  sometimes  three  ears  are  produced.  Dent 
corn  does  not  sucker  freely  except  when  thinly  planted. 
The  number  of  rows  of  kernels  per  ear  varies  from  10  to  24, 
but  almost  all  of  the  dent  varieties  have  from  16  to  20 
rows.  The  ears  vary  from  6  to  14  inches  in  length, 
and  from  5.5  to  7.5  inches  in  circumference.  The  most 
common  measurements  are  from  6.5  to  7  inches  in  cir- 
cumference and  from  8  to  9  inches  in  length.  Ears  vary 


FIG.  6.  —  Cross  section  of 
a  kernel  of  dent  corn. 


CORN  OR  MAIZE 


43 


in  weight  from  \  pound  to  If  pounds.  A  good  dent 
ear  weighs  from  12  to  15  ounces.  Dent  corn  to  fully 
mature  requires  a  growing  season  of  from  90  to  100  days 
for  the  early  varieties,  to  130  to  150  days  for  the  late 
varieties.  There  are  over  300  varieties  of  dent  corn,  and 
in  this  large  number  of  varieties  great  vari- 
ation is  found  in  the  adaptability  to  soil 
and  climate,  length  of  growing  season  and 
in  the  general  character  of  the  plant  and 
ear.  White  and  yellow  are  the  principal 
colors  found  in  this  type,  but  there  are 
also  varieties  of  blue,  purple  and  mottled 
dent  corn.  Dent  corn  is  of  greater  agri- 
cultural importance  by  far  than  all  other 
types  combined,  for  it  is  the  corn  of  the 
great  corn  growing  sections  of  the  world. 
In  the  United  States  dent  corn  is  the  type 
that  is  grown  in  the  great  corn  producing 
states  of  the  Central  West.  The  bulk  of 
the  corn  produced  in  the  United  States  for 
use  in  this  country  and  that  grown  for 
export  belongs  to  this  class. 

35.  Flint  corn. — The  name  flint  is  given 
to  the  varieties  of  corn  belonging  to  this 
class  because  of  the  hard  flinty  appearance 
of  the  kernels  as  viewed  on  the  ear.  If 
a  kernel  of  flint  corn  is  split  open,  it  will 
be  found  to  contain  both  hard  and  soft  endosperm,  but  ar- 
ranged differently  from  that  found  in  dent  corn.  In  flint  corn 
the  hard  or  horny  endosperm  extends  up  the  sides  of  the 
kernel  and  also  over  the  crown,  thus  surrounding  the  soft 
endosperm  and  the  germ.  Because  the  hard  endosperm 
shrinks  uniformly,  no  dent  is  formed  in  most  cases, 


FIG.  7.  —  An 
ear  of  dent 
corn. 


44  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

although  when  the  hard  endosperm  is  in  a  thin  layer  over 
the  crown,  as  is  found  in  some  varieties,  a  slight  dent  is 
formed.  Flint  corn  is  characterized  by  a  somewhat 
smaller  plant  than  the  dent,  with  a  tendency  to  produce 
two  ears.  The  ears  are  smaller  in  circumference  but  of 
about  the  same  length  as  those  of  the  dent  type.  The 
number  of  rows  on  the  ear  varies  from  8  to  16,  with  8  the 
most  common.  The  name  "  eight-rowed  "  corn  is  sometimes 
applied  to  certain  varieties  of  this  type.  The  grains  are 
hard,  with  a  smooth,  flinty  appearance,  and  more  oval 
in  shape  than  the  dent.  White 
and  golden  yellow  are  the  most 
common  colors.  A  good  ear  of  this 
type  will  weigh  7  or  8  ounces.  Flint 
corn  does  not  require  as  long  a  grow- 
ing season  as  the  dent  varieties. 
It  is  grown  principally  in  the  New 
England  States,  New  York,  Penn- 
FIG  8.  — Cross  section  of  syivania  and  Canada,  and  other 

a  kernel  of  flint  corn.  J    .  ' . 

regions  with  short  growing  seasons. 

Large  yields  have  been  reported  from  flint  varieties, 
and  in  comparative  trials  it  has  sometimes  outyielded 
the  dent,  although  where  the  dent  variety  can  be 
grown,  successive  crops  of  it  will  yield  the  best  average. 
Flint  corn  is  highly  prized  by  millers  for  making  corn 
meal,  it  being  more  desirable  for  this  purpose  than  dent 
varieties. 

36.  Pop  corn.  —  This  type  of  corn  gets  its  name  from 
the  well-known  characteristic  of  popping,  or  bursting  into 
a  large  white  fluffy  mass  when  heated.  If  we  examine  the 
inside  of  an  unpopped  kernel,  we  will  find  that  almost  all 
of  the  endosperm  is  of  the  hard  or  horny  sort.  Sometimes 
we  may  find  a  thin  layer  of  the  soft  starch  around  the  germ, 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  45 

but  if  it  is  present  in  too  large  amounts  the  corn  does  not 
pop  well.  The  popping  of  the  kernel  is  due  to  the  pressure 
exerted  in  the  starch  cells  by  the  changing  of  the  moisture 
in  them  to  steam,  when  heat  is  applied.  The  pressure  of 
the  steam  inclosed  in  the  cells  is  so  great  as  to  cause  an 
explosion  of  such  force  as  to  turn  the 
kernel  inside  out,  and  completely  change  f 

its  texture  into  a  light,  fluffy  mass,  from 
fifteen  to   twenty  times   the   size   of  the 
unpopped  grain.     Those  of  you  who  have 
had    experience  in  the    popping  of   corn 
know  that,  unless   the   corn    is   properly 
dried  out,  your  efforts  will  not  meet  with 
success.     And,  too,  if  the  corn  is  too  dry 
a  good  pop  cannot   be   made.     For   this 
reason  it  is  best  to  keep  the  corn  on  the 
cob  and  shell  it  just  before  popping,  since 
if  kept  in  this  manner   it   does  not   dry 
out  so  completely.     The  plant  of  the  pop 
corn  does  not  grow  as  large  as  the  dent       £ 
or  flint  types.     It  varies  from  3.5  to  10 
feet.     Several    ears    are    frequently    pro- 
duced   on   a   stalk,   and   freak  plants  or 
sports   are   more  common  than  in   other 
types.     The  varieties  of  pop  corn  may  be 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  namely,        Sffint  corn** 
the  rice  and  the  pearl.     The  rice  corn  is 
characterized   by  the   crown   of   the  kernel    coming    to 
a  sharp  point,   giving  a  rough    or   prickly    appearance 
to  the  ear.     At  the  apex  of  the  pointed  crown  may  be 
seen  a  scar  showing  the  former  attachment  of  the  silk. 
In  the  pearl  corn  the  kernels  are  rounded  or  flattened 
at  the  crown  and  are  smooth,  having  the  appearance  in 


46 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


this  respect  of  an  ear  of  flint  corn.  In  the  rice  corn  the 
ears  are  inclined  to  be  tapering  with  the  kernels  in  irregular 
rows,  while  in  the  pearl  corn  the  ears  are  more  often  cylin- 
drical and  the  kernels  are  in  straight  rows.  There  are 
early,  medium  and  late  varieties  of  both  the  rice  and  pearl 
corn.  One  variety,  called  Tom  Thumb,  because  of  its 
diminutive  proportion,  is  frequently  grown 
as  a  curiosity.  A  perfectly  formed  ear 
measuring  2  inches  in  length  would  indeed, 
when  compared  with  a  good  ear  of  dent 
corn,  meet  the  demands  of  the  curious. 
Pop  corn  can  be  grown  anywhere  that  dent 
or  flint  corn  can  be  grown.  Farmers 
usually  supply  their  own  needs  by  grow- 
ing a  small  patch  with  the  garden  truck. 
The  production  to  supply  the  numerous 
pop  corn  wagons  and  confectionery  stores 
has  been  largely  confined  to  one  county 
each  in  Iowa  and  Nebraska.  In  these 
sections  soil  and  climate  are  particularly 
well  suited  to  its  growth,  and  here  it  has 
become  an  important  crop,  grown  and 
harvested  by  farmers  who  have  become 
specialists  in  its  production.  So  great  is  the 
industry  in  these  sections  that  hundreds  of  car  loads  are 
sent  out  from  shipping  points  each  season.  One  bushel 
of  ears  when  husked  weighs  about  38  pounds.  When 
cured  for  one  season,  at  which  time  it  is  put  on  the  market, 
35  pounds  is  the  standard  weight  per  bushel  of  ears. 
Fifty  or  sixty  bushels  of  ears  per  acre  is  considered  a  very 
good  yield. 

37.    Soft  corn.  —  One  has  only  to  examine  a  longitu- 
dinal section  of  a  kernel  of  this  type  to  learn  why  it  has 


FIG.  10.  —  Rice 
pop  corn. 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  47 

been  called  soft  corn.  Such  an  examination  will  reveal  the 
fact  that  no  hard  endosperm  is  present,  but  that  the  entire 
endosperm  is  made  up  of  soft  starch.  So  soft  are  the  ker- 
nels of  this  type  of  corn  that  even  when  they  mature  they 
can  sometimes  be  dented  with  the  thumb  nail.  Soft  corn 
is  usually  a  large,  rank-growing  plant  requiring  a  long 
growing  season  to  come  to  its  maturity.  For  this  reason 
it  is  not  grown  to  any  extent  in  the  United  States.  One 
variety,  sometimes  called  Squaw  corn,  which  has  a  com- 
paratively short  growing  season,  is 
grown  in  the  Dakotas  and  other 
Northwestern  States.  Another 
variety,  Brazilian  flour  corn,  is 
sometimes  grown  for  the  silo.  Soft 
corn  is  more  commonly  grown  in 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  por- 
tions of  South  America,  which  have 
long  growing  seasons,  although 
compared  with  dent  or  flint  corn  it 
is  not  of  much  commercial  im-  FIG.  11.  — Cross  section 

mi         T    j-  •  i         of  a  kernel  of  soft  corn. 

portance.      The    Indians   are   said 

to  have  grown  it  extensively  on  account  of  the  ease  of 
grinding  it  into  meal.  Soft  corn  is  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  oldest  types  of  corn,  since  it  has  been  found  in  the 
mounds  of  prehistoric  tribes  in  southwestern  United  States 
and  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America.  The  ears  of  soft 
corn  are  similar  in  appearance  to  those  of  the  flint  type. 
The  kernels  are  usually  large,  sometimes  measuring  as 
much  as  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  breadth. 

38.  Sweet  corn.  —  In  this  type  of  corn  little  starch  has 
been  developed  in  the  kernels,  and  almost  all  of  the  carbo- 
hydrate is  in  the  form  of  sugar,  giving  them  a  distinctly 
sweet  taste.  The  grains  are  usually  broad  wedge  shaped, 


48 


FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 


having  a  wrinkled  or  shriveled  appearance,  and  the 
endosperm  is  horny  and  translucent.  The  plants  grow 
from  two  to  ten  feet  in  height,  with  a  marked  tendency 
to  sucker,  and  to  produce  two  to  three  ears  on  a  stalk. 
Sweet  corn  is  grown 
largely  for  cooking  and 
canning  purposes,  and 
for  this  use  is  harvested 
before  it  reaches  matu- 
rity. The  time  required 
for  it  to  reach  the  stage 
when  it  is  best  suited 
for  this  purpose  is  from 
50  to  100  days,  depend- 
ing upon  the  variety.  In 
the  New  England  States, 
parts  of  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio,  sweet 
corn  is  grown  in  a  large 
way  and  hauled  direct 
from  the  field  to  the  can- 
ning factories.  Growers 
in  these  regions  where 
this  practice  is  followed 
enter  into  contracts  with 
the  owners  of  the  fac- 
tories to  deliver  their  crops  at  a  given 
rate  per  ton.  The  price  of  course 
varies  with  supply  and  demand,  and  also  with  the  variety 
grown,  some  varieties  commanding  a  premium  of  as  much 
as  two  dollars  per  ton  over  the  less  desirable  varieties. 
The  price  is  from  6  to  10  dollars  per  ton.  The  yield 
obtained  varies  from  two  to  four  tons  per  acre,  or  even 


FIG.  12. 
—  An  ear  of 
soft  corn. 


FIG. 


13.  — An     ear 
sweet  corn. 


CORN  OR  MAIZE 


49 


more  when  good  cultural  methods  are  practiced,  and 
when  growing  conditions  are  favorable.  Thus  the  gross 
income  from  an  acre  may  amount  to  as  much  as  40 
dollars,  which,  considering  the  small  amount  of  labor 
required,  gives  a  good  return  to 
the  grower,  when  compared  with 
the  earnings  from  other  farm 
crops. 

39.  Pod  corn.  —  This  type  of 
corn  gets  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  each  kernel  is  inclosed  in  a 
little  husk  or  pod.  The  pod  corn 
plant  is  inclined  to  be  leafy  and 
suckers  abundantly,  often  having 
heavy  tassels  producing  kernels. 
The  kernels  may  resemble  those 
of  almost  any  of  the  other  types 
of  corn,  due  probably  to  the 
fact  that  it  has  been  subjected 
to  frequent  crossings  with  other 
types.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
pod  corn  is  probably  the  primitive 
type  from  which  the  other  types 
have  been  developed,  but  recent 
investigation  does  not  uphold  this 
contention.  Those  who  uphold 
this  theory  explain  that  the  husks 
which  inclose  the  kernels  were  the 
means  by  which  nature  protected 

the  latter  from  birds  and  animals,  and  that  they  also 
assisted  in  their  dissemination,  since  a  kernel  inclosed 
in  a  pod  will  float  on  water.  Since  corn  has  become  a 
cultivated  plant  the  pods  have  lost  their  usefulness  and 


FIG.  14.  —  An  ear  of  pod 
corn. 


50  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

have  gradually  disappeared,  until  now  in  the  other  types 
of  corn  we  find  them  only  in  a  rudimentary  form.  If  we 
examine  closely  an  ear  of  dent  or  flint  corn,  we  find  rudi- 
mentary husks  at  the  tip  of  the  kernel,  and  when  the 
kernel  is  removed,  the  husks  do  not  remain  attached  to  it 
as  in  pod  corn,  but  stay  on  the  cob.  The  fact  that  pod 
corn  frequently  produces  corn  on  the  tassel  leads  us  to 
believe  that  it  is  closely  related  to  the  primitive  type, 
in  which  all  the  kernels  were  produced  in  a  tassel-like  struc- 
ture. Pod  corn  is  of  no  economic  importance,  being  grown 
only  as  a  curiosity,  for  which  purpose  it  is  sometimes  sold 
by  seedsmen  under  the  name  of  Egyptian  corn,  Rocky 
Mountain  corn,  or  primitive  corn. 

USES   OF  THE   CORN   PLANT 

The  various  uses  of  the  corn  plant  may  be  classified  into 
three  groups,  viz.,  human  food,  animal  food,  and  mis- 
cellaneous. 

40.  Use  as  food.  —  Corn  finds  its  chief  uses  as  human 
food  in  the  form  of  green  ear  corn  served  as  roasting  ears 
or  cut  from  the  cob,  and  as  corn  meal,  served  as  corn  meal 
mush  or  corn  bread  or  cakes,  and  as  pop  corn  eaten  from 
the  hand.  Varieties  of  sweet  corn  are  most  commonly 
used  for  roasting  ears  or  for  canning.  Sometimes  flint 
and  dent  corn  are  used  for  this  purpose,  but  they  find  their 
greater  usefulness  as  human  food  in  the  making  of  corn 
meal.  Flint  corn  is  superior  to  any  other  type  for  this 
purpose.  The  pop  corns  are  used  almost  entirely  as 
human  food. 

The  use  of  corn  as  a  stock  food  is  too  well  known  to 
require  much  comment.  The  grain  itself,  either  ground 
or  whole,  is  the  most  common  form  used  for  this  purpose. 
Other  forms  are  ensilage,  fodder,  and  stover,  and  it  is  also 


CORN   OR  MAIZE  51 

used  as  a  soiling  crop.  The  grain,  when  considered  from 
the  standpoint  of  its  chemical  composition,  is  relatively 
high  in  fat  and  starch  but  low  in  protein.  It  is  therefore 
an  excellent  food  for  fattening  animals,  but  is  not  desirable 
as  the  main  portion  of  the  ration  for  young  growing  animals 
or  for  milch  cows.  Corn  stover,  if  cut  at  the  proper  time 
and  well  preserved,  compares  favorably  with  timothy  hay 
in  feeding  value.  Ensilage,  in  which  both  the  grain  and 
roughage  are  fed  together,  besides  being  high  in  digestible 
matter,  is  also  very  palatable,  thus  making  an  excellent 
feed  for  most  farm  animals.  Many  of  the  by-products 
from  manufacture  are  important  live  stock  feeds. 

41.  Manufactured  products.  —  Lye  hominy  is  a  well-known 
product  of  corn,  the  manufacture  of  which  is  often  conducted  on 
a  small  scale  by  the  housewife.  In  the  making  of  lye  hominy, 
the  whole  kernels  are  treated  with  a  solution  of  alkali  or  lye  to 
loosen  the  hull.  After  the  treatment,  the  hulls  are  easily  removed. 
The  hulled  kernels  are  then  thoroughly  washed  to  remove  all  of 
the  lye.  Hominy  mills  perform  the  same  operations  on  a  much 
larger  scale.  A  rather  flinty  type  of  white  corn  is  most  desirable 
for  hominy. 

Cerealine  is  a  similar  preparation  made  from  the  hard,  horny 
portions  of  the  kernel.  Corn  with  a  large  proportion  of  horny 
endosperm  is  desired  by  the  manufacturer  of  cerealine.  Many 
concerns  place  upon  the  market  breakfast  foods  made  from  corn, 
which, may  be  grouped  under  the  term  of  corn  flakes.  White 
corn  is  most  often  used  in  their  manufacture.  The  kernels 
are  first  cracked  and  the  germ  removed.  The  second  step  in 
the  process  is  that  of  steam  cooking  the  cracked  kernels,  adding 
sugar  and  salt  to  flavor  them.  After  the  cooking  they  are  dried 
and  run  between  heavy  rollers  which  roll  each  particle  of  corn 
kernel  into  a  flake.  The  flakes  are  then  toasted  and  boxed  for 
the  market. 

In  the  making  of  corn  starch,  several  other  products,  which 
were  formerly  grouped  under  the  term  of  by-products,  are  pro- 
duced. Recently,  however,  these  products  have  become  of 


52  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

such  importance  that  the  term  "  by-products  "  can  no  longer  be 
accurately  applied.  Sometimes  the  entire  profit  from  a  starch 
factory  is  derived  from  the  utilization  of  what  was  formerly 
waste. 

lu  the  manufacture  of  starch,  the  shelled  corn  is  first  steeped 
in  water  for  a  time,  and  then  the  kernels  are  cracked  by  running 
them  through  coarse  crushers.  The  ground  mass  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  separators  and  a  small  amount  of  water  is  added, 
making  a  milky  liquid.  Upon  stirring,  the  germs  arise  to  the 
surface  and  are  removed.  The  germs  thus  liberated  are  thor- 
oughly washed  to  remove  all  the  starch  and  are  then  placed  in 
a  hydraulic  press  which  presses  out  the  oil.  That  part  which  re- 
mains in  the  press  is  either  sold  as  corn  oil  cake  or  is  ground 
and  sold  as  germ  meal.  The  oil  which  has  been  removed  by 
pressure  is  used  in  this  country  in  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
soap  powders,  and  paints,  and  a  large  amount  is  exported  in  the 
crude  form  for  similar  uses  abroad.  A  substitute  for  rubber  has 
been  made  from  germ  oil  and  is  used  after  vulcanizing  as  a  sup- 
plement of,  or  as  a  substitute  for,  rubber  in  the  making  of  auto- 
mobile tires,  rubber  shoes,  and  other  rubber  goods. 

That  part  which  is  left  in  the  tanks  is  the  glutinous  material, 
bran  and  starch.  This,  when  run  over  bolting  cloth,  allows  the 
starch  and  glutinous  matter  to  pass  through  and  retains  the 
bran,  thus  separating  it.  The  bran  is  washed  to  remove  all  the 
starch  and  is  then  dried  and  ground  and  sold  as  cattle  feed. 
The  starchy  liquid  containing  the  starch  and  glutinous  matter 
is  run  over  slightly  inclined  tables,  and  because  of  specific  gravity 
the  starch  is  deposited  on  the  tables,  while  the  glutinous  material 
is  carried  over  the  end  of  the  tables  into  receiving  tanks.  The 
latter  is  concentrated  by  filter  presses  and  dried.  When  ground 
it  is  sold  on  the  market  as  gluten  meal.  Sometimes  the  ground 
bran  is  mixed  with  the  glutinous  matter  and  with  the  liquid 
used  in  steeping  at  the  beginning  of  the  process.  The  mixture 
is  dried  to  10  per  cent  of  moisture  and  then  ground,  bagged,  and 
sold  on  the  market  as  gluten  feed.  The  water  used  in  steeping 
the  uncracked  kernels  removes  some  of  the  starch  and  mineral 
elements,  which,  when  added  to  the  grain  and  gluten  meal, 
make  a  more  desirable  feed  for  animals.  Gluten  meal,  therefore, 
differs  from  gluten  feed  in  that  the  feed  has  besides  the  gluten 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  53 

a  certain  per  cent  of  bran  and  mineral  elements.  These  two 
feeds,  together  with  oil  cake,  have  a  very  important  place  in  the 
trade  of  concentrated  stock  feeds.  The  starch  remaining  on  the 
incline  table  is  termed  green  starch,  and  when  removed  from  the 
tables  is  diluted  with  water  until  it  forms  a  milky  liquid.  From 
this  liquid  by  careful  refining  corn  starch  is  removed.  After 
filtering,  it  is  dried  in  kilns  and  ground  fine,  run  through  revolv- 
ing silk  screens,  and  is  then  boxed  or  barreled  and  put  upon  the 
market  for  home  consumption  or  for  the  trade.  By  varying 
time  and  temperature  in  refining,  various  grades  and  kinds  of 
starch  are  made.  From  the  starch,  corn  sirup,  corn  sugar,  mill, 
laundry,  and  edible  starch  are  made.  Green  starch  when  sub- 
jected to  a  high  heat  under  pressure  in  the  presence  of  hydro- 
chloric or  certain  other  acids  forms  glucose.  Sugar  made  from 
corn  in  this  manner  is  used  in  the  making  of  sirup,  in  the  brewing 
of  ales  and  porters,  in  fermenting  beers,  and  in  the  making  of 
caramel. 

42.  Miscellaneous  uses.  —  The  grain  of  corn  is  used  in  the 
making  of  alcohol,  but  because  of  the  price  of  corn  and  the  com- 
parative cheapness  of  other  material  that  can  be  used  as  a  source 
of  alcohol,  it  is  not  likely  that  it  will  be  used  extensively  for  this 
purpose.  Corn  stalks  and  the  pith  from  the  stalks  have  been 
used  successfully  in  the  making  of  paper.  Whether  or  not  the 
making  of  paper  from  them  will  be  placed  on  a  practical  basis  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  invention  of  suitable  machinery.  If 
corn  stalks  can  be  utilized  in  this  way,  the  great  loss  in  the  large 
fields  of  the  Middle  West  will  be  greatly  reduced.  The  pith  of 
the  corn  stalks  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder, 
while  in  the  packing  of  battleships  it  is  especially  valuable, 
since  when  wet  it  will  swell  and  thus  close  an  opening  that  may 
be  made  by  a  projectile.  The  husks  of  corn  are  used  in  up- 
holstering and  in  the  making  of  mattresses  and  door  mats. 
Cob  down  is  also  used  in  upholstering  and  in  the  packing  of 
pillows.  The  utilization  of  the  corn  plant  is  extending  into  many 
trades,  and  doubtless  it  will  in  the  future  be  found  useful  in  many 
ways  unknown  at  present. 


54  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


PRODUCTION   AND   DISTRIBUTION 

43.  The  world's  production. — Since  the  discovery  of 
America,  corn  has  been  introduced  into  the  leading  agri- 
cultural countries  of  the  world.  A  study  of  the  table 
of  the  world's  production  of  corn  for  the  five  years,  1908 
to  1912,  shows  that  the  bulk,  or  about  76  per  cent  of  the 
world's  corn  crop,  is  produced  in  North  America.  The 
United  States  is  by  far  the  greatest  corn  producing  country 
of  the  world,  producing  in  the  five  years  above  mentioned 
over  70  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop.  Europe  is  second, 
producing  544  million  bushels  or  about  19  per  cent  as  much 
as  the  United  States.  Austria-Hungary,  Roumania, 
Italy,  and  Russia  are  the  leading  corn  producing  countries 
of  Europe,  while  France,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Bulgaria 
produce  only  a  few  millions  of  bushels  each.  In  Africa, 
Egypt  and  South  Africa  are  responsible  for  over  80  per  cent 
of  her  total  crop.  In  South  America,  Argentina  is  by  far 
the  leading  corn  growing  country,  while  small  amounts  are 
produced  in  Chili  and  Uruguay.  A  remarkable  increase 
in  production  has  been  made  in  Roumania  and  South 
Africa  within  the  past  few  years.  Roumania  cannot 
hope  for  a  much  further  increase  in  her  production,  since 
almost  all  of  the  land  adapted  to  corn  growing  is  now 
being  utilized.  The  English  government,  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  experiment  stations  to  study  the  best  methods 
of  culture,  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the  develop- 
ment of  South  Africa  into  an  important  corn  growing 
country.  This  country  will  doubtless  still  further  increase 
her  production,  since  considerable  land  is  yet  available 
for  the  growing  of  this  crop.  Of  all  the  corn  growing 
countries,  Argentina  in  South  America  alone  gives  promise 
of  becoming  a  strong  competitor  of  the  United  States. 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  55 

WORLD',S  CORN  CROP 
(Five  years'  average,  1908-1912) 

North  America 

United  States 2692  million  bushels 

Mexico 140  million  bushels 

Canada 19  million  bushels 

Total 2851  million  bushels 

South  America 

Argentina 162  million  bushels 

Uruguay 5  million  bushels 

Chili 1  million  bushels 

Total .     .  168  million  bushels 

Europe 

Austria-Hungary 250  million  bushels 

Roumania 93  million  bushels 

Italy 78  million  bushels 

Russia 67  million  bushels 

All  others 66  million  bushels 

Total .  544  million  bushels 

Africa      . .".....         87  million  bushels 

Australia 10  million  bushels 

Grand  total 3660  million  bushels 

LEADING  CORN  PRODUCING  STATES  OF  UNITED  STATES 
(Five  years'  average,  1908-1912) 

Illinois .  380     millions 

Iowa       355.6  millions 

Missouri 221.3  millions 

Indiana 189.5  millions 

Nebraska 177.7  millions 

Ohio        ,.'  .  .   156.5  millions 

Kansas 156.1  millions 

Total .  1636.7  millions 

Agriculturally,  Argentina  is  yet  a  new  country,  and  the 
vast  areas  of  undeveloped  land,  which  seem  to  be  adapted 


56  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

to  the  growing  of  this  crop,  will  doubtless  within  a  few 
years  be  put  under  the  plow.  In  the  United  States  most 
of  the  land  adapted  to  the  growing  of  corn  is  now  being 
tilled,  and  if  our  production  is  to  be  increased,  it  must 
come  through  a  greater  yield  per  acre.  The  development 
of  high  yielding  strains,  and  the  practicing  of  better  meth- 
ods of  culture  are  the  means  open  to  us  for  greatly 
increasing  our  production. 

Corn  does  not  play  a  very  large  part  in  the  world's 
commerce.  Only  four  countries  export  any  considerable 
amount.  These  in  order  of  their  exportation  for  1907 
to  1911  are :  Argentina,  60  millions  of  bushels,  United 
States,  53  millions  of  bushels,  Roumania,  31  millions  of 
bushels,  and  Russia,  30  millions  of  bushels.  Argentina, 
while  her  total  production  is  small  as  compared  with  the 
United  States,  exports  considerably  more  than  this  coun- 
try. The  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  is  largely  utilized 
here  in  the  feeding  of  live  stock,  and  while  only  a  little  of 
it  is  exported  as  corn,  much  more  finds  its  way  to  foreign 
markets  in  the  form  of  pork  and  beef.  Statistics  giving 
the  population  of  the  United  States  and  the  production 
of  corn  by  decades  since  1850,  show  that  our  production 
has  been  keeping  pace  with  our  increase  in  population, 
the  per  capita  production  averaging  slightly  less  than  30 
bushels.  While  the  United  States  as  a  whole  is  the  leading 
corn  growing  country  of  the  world,  this  position  is  due  to 
the  corn  crop  of  a  few  states  which  comprise  what  is  known 
as  the  corn  belt.  The  eight  states  shown  in  the  table 
and  parts  of  other  states  lying  adjacent  to  them  form  the 
great  corn  growing  section  of  the  United  States  and  are 
known  as  the  corn  belt  states.  These  seven  states  pro- 
duce almost  two-thirds  of  the  crop  of  the  United  States 
and  almost  50  per  cent  of  the  world's  corn  crop.  While 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  57 

corn  is  reported  as  being  grown  in  every  state  in  the 
Union,  these  eight  are  the  only  ones  that  produce  a  surplus 
crop.  The  value  of  the  corn  crop  in  the  United  States 
in  1910  was  estimated  at  1500  millions  of  dollars,  and  in 
1911  at  1700  millions  of  dollars.  The  value  of  the  cotton 
crop  is  about  60  per  cent  that  of  corn,  of  wheat  about  40 
per  cent,  and  of  hay  about  50  per  cent  that  of  the  corn 
crop. 

ADAPTATION 

44.  Climate  and  soil.  —  Both  climate  and  soil  are  im- 
portant factors  in  the  distribution  of  the  corn  crop. 
The  fact  that  so  large  a  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  is  grown 
in  the  seven  states  of  the  corn  belt  is  evidence  that  in 
these  states  are  found  the  most  suitable  conditions  for  its 
growth.  Of  the  two  factors,  climate  is  the  more  important. 
Corn  requires  a  long,  hot  growing  season  with  a  great 
amount  of  sunshine  and  rainfall.  If  the  temperature  of 
the  growing  months,  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  is  hot 
and  is  accompanied  by  an  abundance  of  sunshine  and 
plenty  of  rainfall,  corn  will  grow  luxuriantly,  soil  and 
other  factors  being  favorable.  The  corn  plant  requires  a 
large  amount  of  water  to  make  its  growth.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  about  three  hundred  tons  of  water  must 
pass  through  the  plants  for  each  ton  of  dry  matter  formed. 
Thus  the  rainfall  of  the  growing  months  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  production.  It  has  been  found  that  in  the  corn 
belt,  the  rainfall  for  July  is  more  closely  associated  with  the 
yield  than  that  of  any  other  month. 

Corn  grows  best  on  loose,  fertile,  well-drained  soil. 
Clay  soils  are  not  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  corn, 
unless  well  supplied  with  organic  matter.  When  lacking 
in  organic  matter,  clay  soils  become  hard,  the  soil  particles 


58  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

packing  closely  together,  and  moisture  is  neither  retained 
well  nor  absorbed  in  large  amounts.  The  reason  corn  is 
grown  so  commonly  and  produces  so  abundantly  in  the 
corn  belt  states  is  that  there  the  soils  are  made  up 
largely  of  alluvial  or  drift  deposits,  and  these  states  are 
also  favored  with  abundance  of  sunshine  and  rainfall. 


CHAPTER  IV 
CORN  OR  MAIZE   (Continued) 

THEKE  remain  to  be  discussed,  in  the  treatment  of 
maize,  the  practical  questions  of  cultivation,  the  harvesting 
and  storing  and  marketing,  the  improvement  of  the  types 
and  varieties,  and  the  insects  and  diseases. 

METHODS   OF   CULTURE 

Numerous  experiments,  as  well  as  the  experience  of 
many  growers,  have  demonstrated  that  higher  yields  can 
be  secured  when  corn  is  grown  in  a  rotation  than  when 
grown  in  the  same  field  year  after  year.  Continuous 
cropping  of  corn  has  been  practiced  in  many  parts  of  the 
corn  belt  for  a  few  years,  but  after  a  time  decreased  yields 
have  resulted.  A  ten  year  average  at  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station  for  corn  grown  under  continuous  culture 
gave  a  yield  of  9.64  bushels  per  acre,  while  that  grown  in 
five-year  rotation  gave  38.85  bushels  per  acre.  The  place 
taken  by  corn  in  most  well-managed  rotations  is  after 
grass  and  clover.  Corn  can  use  sod  better  than  does  wheat 
or  oats,  while  wheat  and  oats  do  well  after  corn.  A  ro- 
tation based  on  this  fact  will  usually  consist  of  corn,  wheat 
and  clover,  or  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover  and  timothy.  In 
either  case  the  grass  is  plowed  under  and  the  land  put 
into  corn.  The  organic  matter  added  by  this  practice 
produces  a  beneficial  effect,  by  increasing  the  water-hold- 

59 


60 


FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 


ing  capacity  and  preventing  the  soil  from  becoming  hard 
and  compact.  Barnyard  manure  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  grass  land  in  the  spring,  thus  benefiting  both  the 
hay  and  the  corn,  or  it  is  applied  to  the  meadow  after 
the  hay  is  cut,  and  turned  under  for  corn.  Soils  that  have 
been  under  cultivation  for  a  long  time,  or  that  are  naturally 
deficient  in  some  of  the  elements  of  plant  food,  may  be 
greatly  benefited  by  the  addition  of  commercial  fertilizers 


FIG.  15.  —  Unfertilized   and   fertilized  corn  plots  grown  in   continuous 
culture  for  18  years. 

to  supplement  the  barnyard  manure.  No  certain  fer- 
tilizer can  be  recommended  as  the  best  corn  fertilizer. 
Some  fields  require  one  element  of  plant  food  or  a  mixture 
of  fertilizing  constituents,  while  others  may  require  quite  a 
different  treatment.  In  other  words,  the  soil  should  be 
fertilized  and  not  the  corn.  When  commercial  fertilizers 
are  applied  to  corn  land,  they  should  be  broadcast  or 
drilled  in  with  a  fertilizer  drill.  The  practice  of  sowing 
the  fertilizer  into  the  hill  with  the  corn  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, since  the  corn  roots  will  find  plant  food  so  close 


CORN   OR   MAIZE  61 

at  hand  that  they  will  not  branch  out  or  grow  down  deep 
in  the  soil,  and  when  dry  weather  comes  later  in  the 
season,  the  roots  will  not  be  able  to  reach  the  water  in 
the  deeper  subsoil.  A  small  root  system  will  thus  result 
from  sowing  the  fertilizer  in  the  hill,  and  the  corn  will  be 
more  easily  blown  over.  Sometimes  a  small  amount, 
60  to  100  pounds  of  fertilizer  per  acre,  if  placed  in  the 
rows,  will  start  the  plants  off  more  rapidly,  thus  enabling 
them  to  get  ahead  of  weeds  and  insects. 

45.  Plowing  and  preparing  the  seed  bed.  —  It  might 
be  well  before  discussing  the  methods  of  preparing  the  land 
for  corn,  to  consider  some  of  the  essentials  of  a  good  seed 
bed.  Why  should  the  land  be  plowed?  Will  not  the 
plants  grow  as  well  in  soil  that  has  not  been  broken  up 
by  the  plow?  When  we  know  the  principles  underlying 
the  purpose  of  plowing,  we  are  more  nearly  able  to  analyze 
the  conditions  and  thereby  determine  the  most  desirable 
practice  to  follow.  There  are  several  reasons  why  plowing 
makes  the  soil  more  favorable  for  plant  growth.  In  land 
that  has  not  been  plowed  for  some  time  the  soil  particles 
are  packed  closely  together  and  the  surface  soil  becomes 
firm  and  compact.  When  this  condition  exists,  the  soil 
does  not  readily  absorb  water  from  falling  rain,  and  much  is 
lost  by  surface  runoff.  And,  too,  since  the  soil  particles 
are  close  together,  moisture  that  is  already  in  the  soil 
will  reach  the  surface  by  capillarity  and  be  lost  by  evapora- 
tion. Thus  plowed  land  will  not  only  absorb  more  water 
but  will  also  prevent  that  which  is  already  in  the  soil  from 
being  lost  by  evaporation.  Plowing  increases  the  available 
water  for  the  plant  in  another  way.  Since  the  plant  only 
uses  capillary  water,  or  that  which  forms  a  film  around 
the  soil  particles,  plowing  by  breaking  up  the  soil  into 
finer  particles  permits  the  presence  of  a  larger  amount  of 


62 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


film  moisture.  The  breaking  up  of  the  soil  into  fine 
particles  also  permits  the  air  to  enter  the  soil  more  freely 
and  thus  supply  the  root  cells  with  oxygen,  which  they 
require  just  as  do  those  plant  cells  above  ground.  Plants 
obtain  their  food  by  means  of  root  hairs  which  are  so 
delicate  that  they  cannot  penetrate  the  soil  particles,  but 
grow  around  them.  Thus  a  soil  composed  of  many  fine 


FIG.  16.  —  Plowing  with  a  tractor. 

particles  provides  greater  feeding  area  for  the  plant  than 
one  made  up  of  large  particles.  Another  purpose  of 
plowing  is  to  incorporate  with  the  soil  the  organic  matter 
that  it  has  accumulated  on  the  surface  or  that  is  applied 
in  the  form  of  manure  or  by  growing  a  green  manure  crop. 
The  organic  matter  when  mixed  with  the  soil  not  only 
supplies  it  with  plant  food,  but  improves  its  physical 
condition,  permitting  better  aeration  and  increasing  its 


COEN  OR  MAIZE  63 

water-holding  capacity.  The  depth  at  which  to  plow 
depends  largely  upon  the  preceding  practices  and  upon 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  Deep  plowing  is  to  be  preferred 
since  it  increases  the  feeding  area  for  the  plant  roots. 
However,  if  the  practice  of  shallow  plowing,  four  or  five 
inches,  has  been  followed  for  some  time,  it  is  not  well  to 
turn  up  too  much  of  the  subsoil  at  one  time.  By  plowing 
an  inch  deeper  each  year  until  a  depth  of  8  or  9  inches  is 
reached,  the  small  amount  of  subsoil  turned  up  each  year 
will  gradually  be  mixed  with  the  surface  soil  and  organic 
matter,  and  thus  running  together  or  puddling  will  not 
result. 

46.  Time  of  plowing.  —  The  plowing  for  corn  may  be 
done  in  the  fall,  winter,  or  spring.     In  order  to  determine 
which  is  the  most  desirable  time  to  plow  a  field,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  consider  both  the  advantages  to  be  gained,  and  the 
disadvantages  that  may  result  from  the  practice.    These 
will  be  taken  up  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

47.  Conservation    of    moisture.  —  The    loose    ground 
turned  up  by  fall  plowing  will  absorb  more  water  from  the 
rain  and  snow  during  the  winter  and  spring  than  unplowed 
land.     Much  of  the  water  runs  off  from  the  surface  if  the 
ground  is  not  broken  up.     Not  only  will  loose  soil  absorb 
more  water  than  hard  unplowed  ground,  but  less  will  be 
lost  by  evaporation.     Plowing  breaks  up  the  surface  soil 
and  separates  the  soil  particles  so  that  the  film  moisture 
cannot  get  hold  of  them  and  reach  the  surface  to  be  lost 
by  evaporation.     Fall  plowing,  while  conserving  moisture, 
at  the  same  time  is  conserving  heat,  for  it  enables  the  heat 
of  the  sun  in  the  spring  to  be  used  in  warming  up  the  seed 
bed  instead  of  being  used  in  evaporation. 

48.  Saving  of  time.  —  At  the  time  fall  or  winter  plowing 
is  being  done,  the  extremely  busy  season  is  over ;  thus  the 


64 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


plowing  can  be  more  thoroughly  done,  since  it  need  not 
be  rushed  by  other  work.  At  the  same  time  it  lessens  the 
work  of  the  farmer  in  the  spring  when  he  is  busiest. 

49.  Weathering.  —  Increasing  the  depth  of  plowing 
can  be  done  more  satisfactorily  in  the  fall  than  in  the 
spring.  The  subsoil  that  is  turned  up  in  the  fall  will  be 
incorporated  with  the  surface  soil  by  freezing  and  thawing, 
which  are  excellent  agencies  in  pulverizing  the  soil. 


FIG.  17. —  Afield  of  corn  almost  completely  destroyed  by  grubworms. 

50.  Killing  of  insects.  —  Many  of  the  troublesome  in- 
sects injurious  to  field  crops  can  be  effectively  combated 
by  fall  plowing.  Many  insects  spend  the  winter  a  few 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  some  in  the  egg 
stage,  some  in  the  worm  or  grub  stage.  Fall  or  winter 
plowing  will  break  many  of  the  eggs  or  egg  sacs,  bring  the 
caterpillar  and  pupa  to  the  surface,  where  many  will  be 
killed  by  freezing  and  others  eaten  by  birds,  or  skunks  and 
other  animals.  The  cut- worm  and  the  grubworm  pass 
the  winter  in  the  ground  in  the  partly  grown  stage.  Fall 
plowing  has  been  recommended  as  one  of  the  best  methods 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  65 

of  combating  them.  The  practice  of  fall  plowing  interferes 
with  the  winter  resting  stage  of  many  other  insects,  chief 
among  which  are  the  corn-bill-bug,  corn-root  louse,  grass- 
hopper, wire-worm,  and  the  corn  root  webworm. 

51.  Puddling.  —  Tenacious  soils,  or  soil  with  little  or 
no  organic  matter,  if  fall  plowed,  will  sometimes  become 
hard  and  compact  by  spring.     If  plenty  of  humus  is  fur- 
nished the  soil  by  the  application  of  barnyard  manure  or 
by  the  turning  under  of  green  manure  crops,  little  puddling 
will  result  from  fall  plowing. 

52.  Washing.  —  When  the  ground  is  steep  to  the  extent 
that  losses  of  the  soil  are  likely  to  occur  by  surface  wash- 
ing, fall  plowing  is  not  generally  recommended ;  but  if  the 
ground  is  slightly  rolling,  plowing  at  right  angles  to  the 
slope  will  reduce  the  amount  of  washing.     The  slight 
ridges  produced  by  the  plow  will  have  a  tendency  to 
prevent  washing,  and  much  of  the  water  will  be  absorbed 
by  the  loose  soil. 

53.  Loss  of  plant  food.  —  Since  no  crop  is  growing  on  the 
land  in  late  fall  or  early  spring,  certain  elements  of  plant 
food  that  have  become  soluble  may  be  washed  from  the 
soil.     The  loss  in  this  way  is  not  great,  however,  and  rarely 
is  the  loss  of  plant  food  from  this  cause  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent fall  or  winter  plowing  if  other  conditions  are  favorable 
for  the  practice. 

54.  Spring  plowing.  —  If  fall  plowing  cannot  be  prac- 
ticed, then  it  is  best  to  plow  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible. 
Unless  plowed  early  in  the  spring,  the  soil,  which  has  been 
packed  down  by  the  rain  and  by  freezing  and  thawing, 
will  permit  the  water  from  below  to  reach  the  surface  and 
be  lost  by  evaporation.     Land  plowed  late  in  the  spring 
is  usually  dried  out  to  such  an  extent  that  a  fine  seed  bed 
cannot  be  secured.     When  barnyard  manure  or  a  green 


66 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


manure  crop  is  plowed  under,  it  should  usually  be  done 
early,  since  if  turned  under  late  in  the  spring,  it  will  not 
have  time  to  decay  and  may  prevent  the  water  from 
coming  up,  and  the  corn  roots  from  growing  downward. 

55.  Preparing  the  ground  after  plowing.  —  Fall  plowed 
land  is  usually  allowed  to  remain  until  spring  without 
further  preparation.  The  mistake  is  often  made  of  de- 
laying the  preparation  of  fall  plowed  land  until  just  before 


FIG.  18.  —  Organic  matter  should  not  be  plowed  under  in  large  amounts 
late  in  the  spring,  as  it  may  prevent  the  capillary  rise  of  moisture. 

seeding.  When  this  practice  is  followed,  complaint  is 
often  made  that  corn  suffers  more  from  lack  of  water  than 
that  on  spring  plowed  land.  This  is  due  to  a  failure  to 
establish  early  in  the  spring  the  earth  mulch  which  has 
been  settled  down  by  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  winter. 
The  mulch  should  be  reestablished  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
dry  enough  in  the  spring,  by  cultivation  with  a  harrow, 
and  not  be  left  to  lose  moisture  until  planting  time.  On 
spring  plowed  land  the  most  successful  plan  of  conserving 
moisture  is  that  of  following  the  plow  each  day  with  the 


CORN   OR  MAIZE 


67 


harrow.  If  this  is  not  done,  moisture  will  evaporate  from 
the  furrow  slice,  which  will  then  become  hard,  making  the 
further  preparation  of  the  soil  a  difficult  task.  A  roller 
can  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  in  packing  loose  soil 
or  in  crushing  clods.  For  crushing  clods,  a  small  roller 
is  better  than  a  large  one,  since  a  large  roller  will  be  more 


FIG.  19.  —  A  good  type  of  roller  for  crushing  clods. 


likely  to  push  them  down  in  the  ground,  while  a  small  one 
will  crush  them  in  the  attempt  to  climb  over  them.  A 
roller  made  up  of  many  small  rods,  or  any  form  that  will 
give  an  uneven  surface,  is  more  efficient  in  crushing  clods 
than  a  smooth  one.  The  roller  should  always  be  followed 
with  the  harrow,  since  the  former  crushes  the  particles 
of  soil  together  and  thus  reestablishes  capillarity,  permit- 
ting the  escape  of  moisture. 


68  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

56.  Testing  the  seed.  —  When  a  farmer  refers  to  a 
1  stand  "  of  corn,  he  has  in  mind  the  relation  of  the  number 
of  stalks  of  corn  actually  growing  in  a  given  area,  say  an 
acre,  to  the  number  he  had  intended  to  have  when  planting 
the  seed.  For  example,  if  the  farmer  has  planted  12,000 
kernels  per  acre,  he  would  like  to  have  12,000  plants 
grow  to  maturity.  However,  if  only  9,000  plants  result 
from  the  12,000  kernels  planted,  he  says  that  there  is 
three-fourths  or  75  per  cent  of  a  stand.  While  the  farmer 
that  plants  12,000  kernels  would  like  to  have  them  produce 
12,000  plants,  he  is  very  seldom,  if  ever,  successful  in 
getting  that  number.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  farmers  of 
the  corn  belt  states,  on  the  average,  have  over  75  per  cent 
of  a  stand.  That  is  to  say,  if  he  plants  100  acres  of  corn 
and  only  gets  75  per  cent  of  a  stand,  then  there  are  25  acres 
of  the  hundred  that  are  not  growing  any  corn.  The  grower 
has  plowed,  prepared,  and  planted  the  25  acres,  but  does 
not  receive  full  value  for  his  labor.  While  75  per  cent  of 
the  stand  spread  over  100  acres  will  doubtless  give  a 
greater  yield  of  corn  than  the  same  number  of  stalks  on 
75  acres,  it  will  not  in  all  probability  give  as  great  a  yield 
as  a  100  per  cent  stand  on  100  acres. 

There  are  many  reasons  why  the  farmer  does  not  secure 
a  perfect  stand  of  corn,  chief  among  which  are  :  cut-worms, 
wire-worms,  crows,  poorly  plowed  and  carelessly  prepared 
seed  bed,  and  poor  seed  corn.  Probably  the  most  common 
cause  is  that  of  poor  seed.  If  one  ear  in  which  the  kernels 
are  dead  is  planted,  it  will  mean  a  loss  of  800  stalks  which 
should  produce  800  ears  of  corn.  It  is  important,  there- 
fore, that  only  that  corn  be  planted  that  will  produce  a 
strong,  vigorous  sprout.  Careless  handling  of  seed  corn 
in  the  fall  and  winter  is  usually  responsible  for  lack  of  vi- 
tality. While  ears  having  weak  or  dead  kernels  can  some- 


CORN  OR  MAIZE 


69 


times  be  discarded  by  their  general  appearance,  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  detect  them  by  this  means.  The  only 
accurate  way  is  to  plant  them  and  see  if  they  will  grow. 
This  can  be  done  by  taking  several  kernels  from  each  ear, 
and  planting  them  in  a  small  box  filled  with  sawdust,  sand, 
or  soil.  A  box  24  X  24  inches  and  4  inches  deep  is  a 
convenient  size.  Put  2  inches  of  soil  or  sand  in  the  box  and 


FIG.  20.  —  Making  a  germination  test. 

press  it  down  firmly  with  a  brick  or  the  hand.  Then  drive 
tacks  or  small  nails  2  inches  apart  along  the  sides  and 
ends  of  the  box  and  stretch  cords  over  the  top  each  way 
so  as  to  form  2-inch  squares.  These  squares  can  be 
numbered  by  figures  along  one  side  and  letters  along 
one  end.  The  ears  are  numbered  by  attaching  a  small 
piece  of  paper  to  the  butt  by  a  pin.  To  remove  the 
kernels,  use  a  pocket-knife,  inserting  the  blade  at  the 
edges  of  the  kernels  between  the  rows,  and  pry  them  out. 
Begin  near  the  butt  of  the  ear,  remove  one  kernel,  then 


70  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

turn  the  ear  a  little  and  remove  another  kernel  a  little 
higher  up,  going  around  the  ear  in  a  spiral  so  that  six 
kernels  are  removed  by  the  time  the  ear  is  turned  around 
and  the  last  kernel  is  taken  out  near  the  tip  of  the  ear. 
Place  the  six  kernels  in  square  No.  1  of  the  germinating 
box.  Handle  ear  No.  2  in  the  same  way,  placing  the 
kernels  from  this  ear  in  square  No.  2  of  the  germinator. 
After  six  kernels  have  been  removed  from  each  ear  and 
placed  in  the  small  square  of  the  germinator  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  the  ear,  fill  up  the  box  with  dirt  or 
sand.  Then  with  a  sprinkling  can  wet  the  soil  until  it  is 
reasonably  moist.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  a 
place  to  set  the  tester,  as  a  more  accurate  test  can  be  se- 
cured if  it  is  placed  under  conditions  as  near  like  those 
found  in  the  field  as  possible.  If  the  tester  is  placed  behind 
the  stove  or  in  the  furnace  room,  many  kernels  will  grow 
that  would  not  grow  if  planted  in  the  field.  Since  the 
object  of  the  test  is  to  discard  those  that  would  not  grow 
in  the  field,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  tests  made  under 
conditions  similar  to  those  found  in  the  field.  The  results 
of  the  tests  should  be  read  when  the  plants  are  about  2 
inches  high.  The  samples  that  do  not  produce  six  strong, 
vigorous  plants  should  be  noted,  and  the  ears  from  which 
they  were  taken  should  be  discarded.  In  this  way,  only 
those  ears  will  be  used  for  seed  that  have  a  strong  vitality. 
A  tester  the  size  of  the  one  given  above  will  test  at  one  time 
144  ears  or  enough  to  plant  10  or  11  acres.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  commercial  testers  on  the  market,  many  of 
which  are  very  reliable,  while  some  do  not  meet  the  claims 
that  are  advanced  for  them.  A  home-made  tester  will 
do  the  work  just  as  well  as  any  of  the  commercial  forms, 
and  has  the  advantage  of  being  much  cheaper.  This  test 
may  be  made  in  late  winter  or  early  spring  and  will  require 


CORN   OB  MAIZE  71 

from  2  to  4  weeks  for  completion,  depending  on  condi- 
tions for  growth. 

57.  Grading  seed   corn.  —  Many  growers  think  it  is 
necessary  to  plant  corn  from  the  butts  and  tips  to  insure 
well-filled  butts  and  tips  in  the  progeny.      Reports  of 
eight  experiment  stations  of  tests  running   from  1  to  9 
years  in  which  the  seed  from  the  butts,  tips,  and  mid- 
dles of  the  ear  was  compared,  showed  that  there  has  been 
practically  no   difference    in   yield.     In   order   to  get  a 
uniform  drop  from  the  planter,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  shell 
off  the  butts  and  tips  from  the  seed  ear.     To  still  further 
increase  the  efficiency  of  the  planter,  it  is  well  to  select 
ears  that  are  uniform  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  kernel. 
A  seed  corn  grader  made  up  of  three  sieves  with  openings 
of  different  sizes  may  be  used  to  remove  the  large  and 
small  kernels.     Iowa  Station  reports  that  a  planter  using 
seed  graded  in  this  way  gave  95  per  cent  of  a  perfect  drop. 

58.  Time  of  planting.  —  Corn  may  be  planted  in  the 
spring  as  soon  as  the  danger  from  frost  is  over,  and  the 
soil  is  warm  enough  for  the  seed  to  germinate.     Planting  at 
this  time  would  be  regarded  as  early,  while  if  it  is  delayed 
three  or  four  weeks  from  this  time  it  would  then  be  con- 
sidered late  planting.     The  date  at  which  the  soil  is  at 
the  proper  temperature  and  the  danger  of  frost  is  over 
will  vary  in  a  given  locality  with  the  season,  and  in  different 
sections  with  the  latitude.     Early  planting  usually  gives 
the  best  yield  of  mature  corn.     Corn  planted  late  quite 
frequently  has  from  25  per  cent  to  35  per  cent  of  moisture 
at  harvest  time,  and  in  this  condition  is  likely  to  spoil  in 
the  crib.     Early  planting  is  often  impossible  because  of  the 
lack  of  proper  drainage  which  prevents  early  preparation 
of  the  soil.     In  many  cases  the  increase  in  yield  of  mature 
corn  will  in  a  few  years  pay  for  the  draining. 


72  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

59.  Depth  of  planting.  —  Corn  may  be  planted  from  1 
to  5  inches  deep;  1  to  2  inches  deep  may  be  considered 
shallow,  while  from  3  to  5  inches  may  be  regarded  as  deep 
planting.     The  results  of  numerous  experiments  comparing 
deep  and  shallow  planting,  have  generally  been  in  favor  of 
shallow  planting.     The  depth  of  planting,  however,  will 
depend  largely  on  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.     If 
the  soil  is  finely  pulverized  and  the  moisture  has  been 
retained  by  frequent  cultivation,  shallow  planting  is  best. 
If  the  surface  soil  is  lumpy  and  is  dried  out,  it  may  be  best 
to  plant  rather  deeply,  in  order  to  cover  the  corn  and  place 
it  where  there  is  enough  moisture  to  start  germination. 
In  many  sections  of  the  Western  States  corn  is  planted 
with  a  lister.     The  lister  is  an  implement  which  plants  the 
corn  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  the  furrow  being  made 
by  two  disks  or  shovels  running  at  either  side  of  the  drill 
hoe.     Where  this  practice  is  followed  the  land  is  not 
plowed,  and  cultivation  consists  in  plowing  dirt  into  the 
furrow  as  the  plants  increase  in  height.     The  advantage 
over  the  ordinary  method  is  that  of  the  time  and  labor 
saved  from  plowing,  and  the  securing  of  better  moisture 
conditions,  especially  in  rather  dry  areas.     Listing  can  be 
practiced  successfully  only  on  loose,  fertile  soils. 

60.  Rate  of  planting.  —  The  rate  of  planting  refers  to 
the  number  of  stalks  per  given  area.     The  proper  rate  of 
planting  corn  will  depend  largely  upon  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  grown.     Because  of  the 
several  factors  that  will  influence  the  best  rate  of  planting 
corn,  the  experiment  stations  have  not  been  able  to  make 
definite  recommendations  as  to  the  number  of  stalks  per 
hill  or  the  number  of  hills  per  acre.     Several  stations  have 
conducted  experiments  along  this  line,  and  from  the  results 
obtained  have  made  general  recommendations  to  assist 


CORN  OR  MAIZE 


73 


the  grower  in  determining  the  proper  rate  of  planting. 
Corn  may  be  planted  in  hills,  that  is,  several  kernels  in  a 
group,  or  drilled,  in  which  case  kernels  are  placed  along 
in  a  row,  one  kernel  at  a  place.  At  the  Nebraska  Station, 
with  hills  44  inches  each  way,  the  yield  of  grain  was  about 
the  same  for  3,  4,  or  5  grains  per  hill.  When  the  corn 
was  planted  thinly, 
large  numbers  of 
suckers  or  tillers  were 
produced,  many  of 
which  produced  ears. 
When  plant  e'd 
thickly,  the  percent- 
age of  barren  stalks 
was  greater.  In  Il- 
linois, tests  were  made 
at  the  main  station 
and  also  on  various 
soil  types  in  different 
parts  of  the  state. 
The  results  indicate 
that  in  the  fertile  soils 
of  Northern  Illinois, 
higher  yields  are  ob- 
tained with  hills  36 

inches  each  way  and  3  stalks  per  hill,  while  in  some  of  the 
less  fertile  soils,  the  best  yield  was  obtained  with  2  stalks 
per  hill.  At  the  Ohio  Station,  with  the  rate  of  planting  vary- 
ing from  1  to  5  grains  per  hill,  and  hills  42  inches  each  way, 
there  was  a  variation  of  only  a  few  bushels  in  the  yield  of  3, 
4,  and  5  stalks  per  hill.  Four  stalks  per  hill  produced  the 
largest  yield.  Two  stalks  per  hill  produced  about  81  per 
cent  and  3  stalks  about  95  per  cent  as  much  as  4  grains. 


FIG.    21. —  Planting    corn   with   a   check 
rower. 


74  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

In  the  results  of  the  Ohio  and  Nebraska  experiments  there 
was  a  noticeable  difference  in  the  size  of  the  ear,  and 
the  per  cent  of  barren  stalks  from  the  thick  and  thin 
planting.  This  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  ability  of 
the  corn  plant  to  adapt  itself  to  existing  conditions.  If 
planted  too  thinly,  the  plants  in  order  to  produce  as  much 
as  possible  under  existing  conditions,  produce  large  ears, 
more  plants  bear  two  ears,  and  there  are  fewer  barren  stalks. 
If  planted  too  thickly,  the  ears  are  smaller,  the  percentage 
of  two-eared  plants  is  lower,  and  the  percentage  of  barren 
stalks  is  greater.  Many  growers  prefer  a  high  percentage 
of  large  ears  rather  than  a  larger  number  of  small  ears  and 
a  few  more  bushels  per  acre,  although  if  the  corn  is  to  be 
used  for  feeding  live  stock,  there  is  no  objection  to  the  small 
ears.  Many  growers  of  show  or  seed  corn  plant  thinly  in 
order  to  produce  a  large  number  of  big  ears.  For  good  soil 
conditions  of  the  corn  belt  a  rate  of  3  grains  per  hill  and 
hills  36  by  42  inches  should  produce  a  high  yield  of  grain. 
In  less  fertile  soils,  2  grains  per  hill  may  be  a  better 
rate  at  which  to  plant. 

The  Ohio  Station,  in  comparing  hilling  with  drilling  of 
corn,  found  that  one  grain  every  12  inches  or  2  grains 
every  24  inches  gave  better  results  than  3  grains  per  hill  36 
inches  apart,  or  4  grains  per  hill  48  inches  apart.  One  ob- 
jection to  drilling  corn  is  that  of  not  being  able  to  cultivate 
it  both  ways,  thus  requiring  in  weedy  fields  considerable 
hand  work  with  a  hoe.  In  the  rolling  sections  of  the  country 
drilling  is  the  general  practice,  since  if  the  rows  are  run 
at  right  angles  to  the  slope,  the  soil  does  not  wash  so 
badly  as  when  the  stalks  are  grouped  in  a  hill  quite  a 
distance  apart.  While  drilling  may  give  three  or  four 
bushels  more  per  acre  than  the  same  number  of  grains 
planted  in  hills,  it  is  often  a  question  whether  the  increase 


CORN  OB  MAIZE  75 

in  yield  will  compensate  for  the  extra  labor  necessary  in 
keeping  the  field  free  from  weeds.  When  corn  is  grown 
for  stover,  the  thicker  rate  of  planting  will  give  the  highest 
yield  of  roughage.  When  planting  for  the  silo,  the  corn 
should  be  drilled,  if  possible,  at  the  rate  of  one  grain  every 
10  or  12  inches.  While  this  may  not  give  as  great  a 
tonnage  as  thicker  planting,  the  percentage  of  grain  is 
higher,  thus  giving  equal  if  not  a  little  more  feeding  value. 
61.  Cultivation.  —  The  principal  reasons  for  cultivating 
the  corn  during  the  early  stages  of  growth  are  to  kill  the 
weeds  and  conserve  moisture.  As  has  been  pointed  out, 
growing  corn  requires  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  the 
amount  of  rainfall  during  the  growing  season  is  closely 
correlated  with  the  yield.  While  it  is  not  possible  to 
control  the  amount  of  rainfall  during  the  growing  season, 
it  is  possible  to  save  a  large  part  of  that  which  falls  early 
in  the  season  for  the  use  of 'the  plants  when  their  needs 
for  water  are  greatest.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  surface  soil  broken  up  into  fine  particles,  to  form  a 
mulch  which  will  prevent  the  water  that  is  in  the  lower  soil 
from  reaching  the  surface  and  being  lost  by  evaporation. 
Weeds  are  undesirable  in  a  corn  field  because  they  not  only 
use  up  the  water  that  should  be  left  for  the  use  of  the  corn, 
but  they  also  use  up  plant  food.  Therefore  one  operation 
may  serve  to  kill  the  weeds,  and  also  to  reestablish  the 
earth  mulch  to  prevent  evaporation  of  water.  When  the 
plants  are  small,  this  can  best  be  done  by  a  weeder  or  a 
spike  tooth  harrow,  providing  the  ground  is  not  cloddy 
at  the  time  of  cultivation,  and  if  large  annual  weeds  have 
not  got  a  start.  Cultivation  is  therefore  rendered  less 
difficult  by  thoroughly  preparing  the  ground  before 
planting.  If  a  weeder  or  harrow  is  run  over  the  field  on  a 
hot,  sunshiny  day,  before  the  plants  are  up,  it  will  establish 


76  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  earth  mulch  and  kill  the  weeds  that  are  just  starting. 
The  weeder  or  harrow  should  be  run  over  the  field  fre- 
quently until  the  plants  are  seven  or  eight  inches  high. 
These  implements  should  not  be  used  early  in  the  morning 
or  on  cloudy  days,  since  at  this  time  the  plant  cells  are 
filled  with  water  and  the  plants  are  easily  broken  off. 
After  the  corn  is  too  big  to  cultivate  with  the  weeder, 
the  mulch  should  be  maintained  by  a  cultivator  equipped 
with  small  shovels,  which  should  be  run  about  2  inches  deep. 
Shallow  cultivation  will  conserve  the  moisture  and  kill 
the  small  weeds  quite  as  well  as  deep  cultivation.  How- 
ever, if  large  annual  weeds  are  started,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  run  the  shovel  somewhat  deeper  in  order  to  uproot 
them.  Deep  cultivation  cuts  off  many  of  the  corn  roots 
and  turns  up  a  lot  of  moist  soil  which  will  dry  out  by  ex- 
posure to  the  wind,  thus  causing  a  greater  amount  of 
moisture  to  be  lost  than  by  shallow  cultivation.  After 
the  corn  is  too  large  for  the  cultivator,  and  the  roots  have 
grown  in  the  upper  soil,  the  mulch  can  be  maintained  by 
dragging  a  mower  wheel  or  a  plank  drag  between  the 
rows.  This  will  not  only  keep  the  dust  mulch  and  kill 
the  weeds,  but  will  also  provide  a  good  seed  bed  for  the 
seeding  of  catch-crops  in  the  corn,  or  for  the  seeding  of 
wheat  later  in  the  season.  The  frequency  of  cultivation 
will  depend  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  number  of 
weeds  present,  and  the  amount  of  rainfall.  In  a  very  dry 
season  it  will  be  profitable  to  continue  the  cultivation  until 
late  in  the  summer,  while  in  seasons  of  plentiful  rainfall, 
such  cultivation  may  not  be  necessary. 

HARVESTING   AND    STORING 

62.    Harvesting.  —  The  method  of  harvesting  depends 
largely  upon  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop.     If 


CORN   OR  MAIZE  77 

only  the  grain  is  desired,  the  most  common  practice 
of  harvesting  is  that  of  husking  the  ears  by  hand  from  the 
standing  stalk.  Usually  the  ears  are  thrown  directly 
into  a  wagon  which  accompanies  one  or  two  huskers.  In 
a  field  of  good  corn  one  man,  depending  of  course  upon 
the  individual,  can  husk  and  haul  to  the  crib  from  50  to  90 
bushels  per  day.  A  machine  has  been  placed  on  the 
market  that  will  husk  the  corn  from  the  standing  stalk, 
and  by  means  of  a  conveyor  deliver  the  ears  into  a  wagon 
driven  along  beside  the  husker.  A  husker  of  this  sort 
requires  six  or  eight  horses  to  pull  it.  The  machine 
has  not  been  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  one,  and  can  only 
be  used  in  very  large  fields  where  few  turns  are  necessary. 
The  machine  is  not  in  common  use  even  among  the  growers 
who  harvest  a  large  acreage. 

Sometimes  the  grower  uses  not  only  the  ears,  but  also 
the  leaves  and  stalks.  Corn  fodder  is  the  corn  plant 
cut  off  near  the  ground  and  consists  of  the  stalk,  ear,  and 
leaves.  If,  after  cutting,  the  ears  are  husked  out,  the 
leaves  and  stalks  are  called  corn  stover.  Corn  may  be 
cut  either  by  hand  or  by  means  of  corn  cutting  machinery. 
The  number  of  hills  put  into  one  shock  varies  from  100'  to 
144  or  more.  The  cutting  may  be  done  by  means  of  a 
sled  with  a  knife  on  either  side,  and  drawn  by  a  horse 
walking  between  the  two  rows  that  are  being  cut.  Two 
men  stand  on  the  sled  and  catch  the  corn  as  it  is  cut  off 
by  the  knife.  When  they  have  secured  an  armful,  the 
horse  is  stopped  while  the  fodder  is  set  up  into  a  shock 
behind  the  sled.  When  the  corn  is  down  badly,  this 
method  of  cutting  cannot  be  employed.  Another  type 
of  cutter,  which  is  equipped  with  a  large  platform,  permits 
the  shock  to  be  set  up  on  the  platform,  and  when  completed 
is  transferred  by  means  of  a  lever  to  the  ground  behind 


78 


FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 


the  cutter.  The  corn  binder  now  in  general  use  cuts  and 
binds  the  fodder  into  bundles  which  are  dropped  off  on 
the  ground,  and  later  set  up  into  shocks.  The  time  of 
cutting  in  order  to  secure  the  best  yield  of  both  grain  and 
stover  is  when  the  husks  are  dry  and  from  one-third  to 
one-half  of  the  leaves  are  still  green.  If  cut  before  this 
time,  the  feeding  value  is  not  so  great,  due  to  immaturity  ; 


FIG.  22.  —  Harvesting  corn  with  a  corn  binder. 

and  if  cut  much  later,  many  of  the  leaves  will  drop  off 
during  the  cutting.  When  the  ears  only  are  desired,  they 
should  be  left  on  the  stalk  until  fully  mature.  If  removed 
before  maturity,  all  of  the  starch  will  not  be  transferred 
from  the  leaves  to  the  ear,  and  thus  they  will  not  have  as 
great  a  feeding  value  as  when  fully  mature. 

Many  corn  growers  do  not  husk  out  the  ears  after 
cutting  but  feed  the  fodder  to  cattle,  supplying  them  with 
both  roughage  and  grain.  In  almost  all  cases  the  ears 
are  husked  out  and  fed  separately  from  the  stover.  The 


CORN  OR  MAIZE 


79 


husking  may  be  done  by  hand  or  by  means  of  a  husker, 
which  not  only  removes  the  ears,  but  also  shreds  or  cuts 
the  stover  up  into  small  pieces.  Stover  after  passing 
through  the  husker  and  shredder  is  called  shredded 
stover.  It  is  usually  stored  in  the  barn,  or  sometimes  in 
stacks  out  of  doors.  Shredded  stover  is  much  more  con- 
venient to  handle  in  indoor  feeding  than  stover  not 
shredded.  In  some  sections  of  the  country  only  the  leaves 
are  used  as  forage.  Where  this  practice  is  followed,  the 
leaves  are  stripped  from  the  plant  and  hauled  away,  leaving 
the  stalk  and  ear  in 
the  field.  Sometimes 
the  top  of  the  stalk, 
that  part  above  the 
ear,  is  cut  off  and 
shocked,  leaving  the 
lower  part  of  the  stalk 
and  the  ear  standing. 
When  the  corn  is  used 
for  ensilage,  it  should 
be  cut  just  a  little  be- 
fore it  would  be  in 

proper  condition  to  put  into  the  shock.  If  allowed  to 
become  too  dry,  it  will  not  pack  in  the  silo,  and  it  will 
be  necessary  to  add  water  at  the  time  of  filling  in  order 
to  make  it  pack  more  closely  and  to  exclude  the  air. 
When  corn  is  to  be  put  into  the  silo,  it  is  well  to  start 
cutting  while  it  is  a  little  green,  for  if  cutting  is  begun 
just  at  the  proper  stage,  part  of  the  corn  will  have  become 
too  dry  before  the  work  is  finished. 

Another  method  of  harvesting  the  corn  crop  is  that  of 
turning  hogs  that  are  being  prepared  for  the  market  into 
the  field.  This  method  is  followed  only  in  a  comparatively 


FIG.  23.  —  Filling  the  silo. 


80  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

small  way,  and  usually  only  a  part  of  the  crop  on  a  given 
farm  can  be  "  hogged  down  "  to  advantage.  The  yield  of 
corn,  of  course,  will  determine  the  number  of  hogs  per 
acre  that  can  be  profitably  turned  into  a  given  area.  Ten 
acres  of  good  corn  will  carry  75  good  sized  hogs  to  advan- 
tage. It  is  advisable  to  divide  the  field  by  means  of  a 
temporary  fence,  thus  confining  the  hogs  to  a  small  area, 
which  method  will  insure  less  waste  than  would  result 
if  they  were  given  the  run  of  the  entire  field.  When  the 


FIG.  24.  —  A  field  of  corn  in  shock. 

corn  has  been  well  cleaned  up,  the  feeding  area  can  be 
extended  by  moving  the  temporary  fence.  When  the 
field  has  been  completely  run  over  by  the  hogs  that  are 
being  prepared  for  market,  old  hogs  such  as  brood  sows 
may  be  turned  in  to  clean  up  the  corn  that  has  been  left 
here  and  there  over  the  field.  When  the  farmer  is  pre- 
pared to  harvest  a  part  of  the  crop  in  this  manner,  it  is  to 
be  recommended,  since  much  labor  is  saved  in  the  husking. 
Wet  seasons  are  not  favorable  for  "  hogging  down  "  corn, 
since  the  loss  by  waste  is  much  greater  than  during  the 


CORN  OB  MAIZE  81 

dry  season.     The  tramping  by  the  hogs  in  wet  soil  may 
cause  it  to  break  up  cloddy  the  next  spring. 

63.  Loss  in  store.  —  The  moisture  content  of  ear 
corn  at  the  time  of  harvest  varies  from  15  per  cent  to  as 
much  as  35  per  cent,  or  more.  The  moisture  content 
depends  largely  upon  the  maturity.  Corn  that  is  well 
matured  usually  has  from  16  to  20  per  cent  of  moisture 
at  the  time  of  harvest,  while  immature  corn  may  have 
as  much  as  30  or  35  per  cent.  Corn  with  high  moisture 
content  loses  considerable  weight  in  store,  due  to  the 
evaporation  of  the  water.  Many  experiments  have  been 
conducted  to  determine  the  amount  of  shrinkage  of  ear 
corn  in  store.  The  weight  of  the  corn  when  put  into  the 
crib  compared  with  the  weight  when  taken  out  will  show 
the  loss  due  to  the  drying  out  while  in  store.  The  moisture 
content  of  corn  when  well  dried  out  is  from  10  to  14  per 
cent.  Thus  corn  with  30  per  cent  of  moisture  at  the  time 
of  harvest  will  show  a  loss  in  weight  of  from  15  per  cent  to 
18  per  cent  when  completely  dried  out.  The  loss  of  well- 
matured  corn  while  in  storage  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  the 
loss  in  immature  corn.  Perhaps  the  loss  of  well-matured 
corn  will  not  exceed  8  or  10  per  cent  for  the  first  year. 
Experiments  conducted  by  the  Illinois  Station  show 
that  the  greatest  shrinkage  occurs  during  the  months  of 
April  and  May.  After  May,  corn  in  store  loses  very 
little  in  weight.  If  kept  in  store  for  two  years  or  more, 
there  is  very  little  loss  in  weight  after  the  spring  following 
the  time  when  it  was  stored  in  the  fall.  In  this  connection 
it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  advantage  of  marketing 
in  the  fall  at  the  time  of  husking,  with  those  of  marketing 
in  the  following  spring  or  summer,  or  at  a  still  later  date. 
To  decide  whether  or  not  to  market  in  the  fall,  the  maturity 
of  the  corn  at  the  time  of  harvest,  the  price  in  the  fall, 
G 


82  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

and  the  probable  price  in  the  spring  or  summer  must  be 
considered.  Of  course  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  grain 
dealers  do  not  pay  corn  prices  for  water.  When  corn  with 
a  high  per  cent  of  moisture  is  sold  in  the  fall,  the  usual 
practice  is  not  to  buy  it  at  a  per  bushel  rate,  but  at  a  given 
price  per  70  pounds  or  72  pounds,  as  the  case  may  be, 
depending  upon  the  moisture  content.  Farmers  who 
purchase  corn  for  feeding  should  consider  the  moisture 
content  just  as  do  the  grain  dealers.  Good  ventilation  in 
storage  is  essential,  especially  if  the  corn  is  not  well  dried 
out  when  husked.  Storing  corn  in  tight  bins  or  cribs, 
unless  it  is  well  dried  out,  will  be  likely  to  cause  molding 
and  rotting. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF    CORN 

64.  Method  of  improvement.  —  Increasing  the  yield 
of  corn  may  be  accomplished  either  by  improving  the 
fertility  and  physical  conditions  of  the  soil,  or  by  improving 
the  plant,  or  by  both.  Improving  the  soil  has  been 
briefly  discussed  under  cultural  methods,  and  only  im- 
provement of  the  plant  remains  to  be  considered.  The 
first  consideration  in  the  improvement  of  corn  is  the 
selection  of  the  variety.  Varieties  of  corn  vary  greatly 
in  their  adaptability  to  soils  and  climate,  and  in  yield. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  varieties  of  dent  and  flint 
corn,  some  of  which  differ  greatly  in  the  character  of  the 
plant,  and  in  the  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the  ear  and 
kernel.  Many  others,  however,  are  so  similar  in  all  re- 
spects that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  between  them. 
This  is  due  in  great  measure  to  the  common  practice  of 
giving  to  the  corn  the  name  of  the  man  from  whom  the 
seed  was  secured,  and  henceforth  that  particular  strain 
is  known  as  "  Jones'  "  Yellow  Dent,  "  Wilson's  "  White, 
or  "  Knox  County  "  Corn,  as  the  case  may  be.  Some- 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  83 

times,  too,  after  a  few  years  of  selection  for  a  special  type, 
the  grower  renames  one  of  the  older  varieties.  This  has 
naturally  led  to  considerable  confusion,  and  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  a  uniform  nomenclature.  Many  of 
the  older  varieties  and  some  of  the  newer  ones  have  been 
developed  into  a  fixed  variety  type  by  careful  and  con- 
sistent selection.  Thus  Learning,  Reid's  Yellow  Dent, 
and  Pride  of  the  North  are  distinct  varieties,  while  many 
other  so-called  varieties  are  only  selections  from  the  older 
varieties. 

65.  Variety  test.  —  The  selection  of  a  variety  for  any 
given  locality  involves  the  choice  of  a  variety  adapted  to 
the  soil  and  climate.  Not  only  must  it  be  adapted  to  soil 
and  climate,  but  it  must  also  be  a  high  yielder  of  a  good 
quality  of  corn.  It  is  not  safe  to  select  a  variety  from  a 
distance  or  even  from  a  neighboring  county,  unless  one 
is  sure  that  it  will  be  adapted  to  the  conditions  found  on 
the  farm  on  which  it  is  to  be  grown.  Corn  plants  are 
sensitive  to  a  change  of  soil  and  climate.  A  variety  that 
is  well  adapted  to  one  section  of  the  country  or  to  one 
farm  may  not  be  suited  to  another  farm.  Many  have 
experienced  sad  results  from  buying  seed  from  a  well- 
recommended  variety  in  another  state  or  even  within  the 
same  state.  The  custom  of  purchasing  seed  from  growers 
of  prize-winning  corn  regardless  of  adaptability  of  that 
variety  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  to  be  grown, 
has  often  resulted  in  serious  loss  to  the  purchaser.  The 
only  safe  way  to  get  seed  corn  from  a  distance  is  to  pur- 
chase a  small  amount  and  try  it  out  for  a  few  years  in  a 
small  plot.  If  it  produces  a  good  yield  of  mature  corn, 
a  larger  amount  of  seed  corn  can  then  be  secured  for 
seeding  a  larger  acreage.  Maturity  is  an  important 
consideration.  Immature  corn,  as  pointed  out  in  the 


84  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

paragraph  on  storage,  is  not  to  be  desired  in  any  event. 
Seemingly  high  yields  at  husking  time  may  result  in  a 
much  lower  yield  of  inferior  quality  when  properly  dried 
out.  Each  farmer  can  with  little  time  and  expense 
conduct  on  his  farm  a  variety  test  that  will  answer  the 
question  as  to  which  variety  is  the  most  profitable  for  him 
to  grow.  A  small  plot  may  be  laid  off  in  the  corner  of 
the  regular  field  and  planted  with  several  different  varie- 
ties along  with  his  own.  A  comparison  of  the  yield  of 
mature  corn  at  harvest  will  decide  the  question.  In  a 
small  plot  two  rows  may  be  planted  from  one  variety, 
the  next  two  rows  from  another,  and  so  on.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  have  some  standard  by  which  to  measure 
the  new  varieties.  This  is  best  done  by  planting  each 
fourth  plot  with  home  grown  seed.  This  will  serve  as  a 
check  or  standard  with  which  to  compare  the  new  varieties. 
If  it  is  not  desirable  to  lay  off  the  small  area,  the  test  can 
be  made  by  planting  a  round  with  the  planter  through  the 
field  with  one  variety,  and  the  next  round  with  the  seed 
of  another,  and  so  on.  Each  fourth  round  should  be 
planted  with  home  grown  seed  in  order  to  note  variations 
in  soil,  and  to  have  a  standard  for  comparison.  Marked 
variations  will  usually  be  seen  in  a  variety  test  in  the 
general  character  of  the  plants,  the  date  at  which  the 
tassels  and  silks  appear,  the  time  of  maturity,  and  in 
yield.  Professor  C.  G.  Williams  suggests  the  following 
method  of  determining  the  yield :  "  In  determining  the 
yield  per  acre,  each  variety  is  compared  with  the  check 
plots  between  which  it  grew,  the  number  of  bushels  by 
which  it  exceeds  or  falls  short  of  the  check  is  determined, 
and  this  excess  or  shortage  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
the  average  yield  of  all  of  the  check  plots."  The  variety 
that  gives  the  highest  yield  of  mature  corn  of  good  quality 


CORN   OR  MAIZE  85 

should  be  selected  for  perpetuation.  Seed  corn  should 
not  be  selected  from  the 'variety  test  plots,  for  since  corn 
is  a  cross-pollinating  plant,  the  varieties  growing  side  by 
side  have  intercrossed  and  the  progeny  of  such  seed  would 
be  a  mixture.  The  variety  test  only  points  out  the 
variety  best  adapted  to  the  field  in  question,  and  the  seed 
for  planting  the  next  year's  crop  should  be  secured  from 
the  same  grower  that  furnished  the  seed  for  the  test  plot. 
66.  Seed  selection.  —  The  most  common  method  of 
selecting  seed  corn  is  that  of  laying  aside  the  best  appear- 
ing ears  that  are  found  during  harvest  or  that  are  found 
here  and  there  as  the  corn  is  fed  from  the  crib  during  the 
winter  or  spring.  Sometimes  seed  selection  is  delayed 
until  spring,  when  the  seed  ears  are  picked  from  the  crib. 
The  best  corn  growers,  however,  practice  field  selection. 
Field  selection  is  going  into  the  field  and  selecting  the 
ears  from  the  standing  stalks.  There  are  several  reasons 
why  field  selected  seed  is  to  be  preferred  to  seed  selected 
from  the  crib  in  the  spring,  or  even  to  seed  selected  from 
the  wagon  at  harvest  time.  It  is  not  always  the  large, 
well-proportioned  ear  that  one  would  naturally  pick 
when  selecting  from  the  crib  that  produces  the  largest 
yield.  In  many  cases  these  superior'  looking  ears  have 
been  produced  under  extremely  favorable  conditions. 
Probably  they  have  grown  in  a  hill  of  only  one  stalk 
instead  of  three,  perhaps  on  some  unusually  fertile  spot, 
or  over  a  tile  drain,  or  under  some  abnormal  conditions 
that  were  favorable  to  their  growth.  The  merits  of  these 
ears  will  not,  in  all  probability,  be  reproduced  in  the 
progeny  unless  planted  under  the  favorable  conditions 
that  produced  them.  In  field  selection  only  ears  that  are 
found  growing  under  normal  conditions  of  stand,  fertility, 
and  the  like  are  selected.  The  excellence  which  these 


86 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


ears  will  possess  is  hereditary,  and  will,  therefore,  in  all 
likelihood  be  transmitted  to  the  progeny.  The  height 
of  the  plant,  and  the  height  at  which  the  ear  is  carried 
on  the  stalk,  should  also  be  considered.  Tall  plants  are 
not  usually  desirable  when  corn  is  grown  for  the  grain, 

since  tall  corn  is 
difficult  to  handle 
in  cutting,  and  if 
harvested  from  the 
standing  stalk,  the 
ear  is  in  an  awkward 
position  to  husk. 
Selection  of  seed  from 
plants  carrying  the 
ear  at  a  medium 
height  will  after  a 
few  years  produce 
a  strain  of  corn  in 
which  most  of  the 
ears  will  be  at  a 
convenient  height  to 
husk.  Likewise  se- 
lection for  medium 
height  of  stalk  will 
develop  plants  of  con- 
venient height  to  har- 
vest. If  the  corn  is  a  little  late  for  the  average  season, 
by  selecting  seed  from  the  early  maturing  plants  that 
will  be  found  growing  here  and  there  over  the  field,  one 
can  in  a  few  years  have  the  general  crop  ripen  a  week 
or  ten  days  earlier.  Another  thing  that  should  be  con- 
sidered in  field  selection  of  seed  is  the  vigor  of  the  plant. 
Some  plants  are  easily  blown  over,  while  others  are  able 


FIG.  25.  —  Rack  for  storing  seed  corn. 


CORN  OR   MAIZE  87 

to  carry  their  load  and  remain  in  an  upright  position 
until  harvest  time.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  to  be 
gained  by  fall  selection  of  seed  is  the  opportunity  afforded 
it  to  thoroughly  dry  out  before  freezing  weather  comes. 
Seed  corn  if  not  well  dried  out  before  a  hard  freeze  may 
have  the  vitality  greatly  impaired,  and  in  some  cases  the 
germ  may  be  killed.  Seed  corn  should  be  stored  in  a  well- 
ventilated  room.  The  ears  should  be  piled  or  hung  up 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  air 
among  them.  During  damp  weather  a  little  artificial  heat 
will  assist  in  drying  them  out. 

67.  Some  results  of  field  selection.  —  At  the  Ne- 
braska Station,  seed  selected  from  a  plot  growing  five  plants 
per  hill  was  compared  with  seed  grown  at  the  rate  of  three 
plants  per  hill  and  one  plant  per  hill.  The  seed  selected 
from  these  plots  was  planted  the  next  season  at  the  uni- 
form rate  of  three  plants  per  hill.  Three  years'  average 
gave  the  results  shown  in  the  table  below : 

SEED  PROM  YIELD  NEXT  YEAR  WHEN  PLANTED  AT 

RATE  OP  3  STALKS  PER  HILL 

1  stalk  per  hill .    61.8  bushels 

3  stalks  per  hill     .     .     .     ....    62.2  bushels 

5  stalks  per  hill 64.4  bushels 

At  the  Ohio  Station,  seed  selected  in  the  field  from  plants 
growing  under  normal  conditions  of  stand  and  fertility 
was  compared  with  the  seed  selected  from  the  wagon  at 
harvest  time.  In  selecting  from  the  wagon  the  appearance 
of  the  ear  was  the  only  guide,  since  the  conditions  under 
which  it  had  grown  could  not  be  determined.  When 
planted  the  next  year  at  a  uniform  rate  of  three  kernels 
per  hill  the  field  selected  seed  produced  3.72  bushels  of 
corn  more  per  acre  than  that  produced  by  the  wagon 
selected  seed.  There  are  those  who  object  to  field  selec- 


88  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

tion  of  seed,  contending  that  ears  removed  from  the 
stalk  before  cutting  time  are  not  fully  mature.  This 
objection  may  be  overcome  by  marking  ears  desired  tor 
seed,  before  the  corn  is  put  into  the  shock,  and  separating 
them  at  husking  time  from  the  rest  of  the  corn.  It  is 
well  to  select  from  the  field  a  larger  number  of  ears  than 
will  be  necessary  to  plant  the  next  year's  crop.  This 
will  permit  the  sorting  over  of  the  seed,  and  the  dis- 
carding of  undesirable  ears  or  those  with  faulty  germina- 
tion. 

68.  Ear-to-row  test.  —  Ears  of  corn  vary  greatly 
in  size,  shape,  weight,  and  other  ear  characters.  They 
also  vary7  in  productiveness.  It  would  be  a  great  conven- 
ience to  the  corn  grotwer  if  he  could  by  the  appearance 
of  an  ear  estimate  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  its 
ability  to  yield.  This,  however,  has  not  been  found 
possible  with  the  present  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  ear 
characters  to  yield.  The  ear-to-row  test  is  the  only 
method  of  picking  out  the  high  yielding  ears.  "  This 
test  consists  in  comparing  the  relative  productiveness 
of  a  number  of  ears  of  corn  when  planted  side  by  side, 
an  ear  or  a  part  of  an  ear  to  a  row.  Ears  for  such  tests 
may  well  be  selected  while  ripening  in  the  field,  in  order 
that  the  condition  of  growth  may  be  noted,  and  only 
such  ears  chosen  as  give  some  reason  for  believing  that 
their  excellence  may  be  due  to  something  other  than 
favorable  environment."  An  ear-to-row  test  may  be 
carried  out  in  the  corner  of  the  regular  corn  field.  The 
soil  should  be  uniform  in  fertility,  and  if  underdrained, 
the  rows  should  run  at  right  angles  to  the  drain  in  order 
that  all  the  rows  will  be  affected  alike.  The  rows  for 
convenience  may  be  made  50  hills  long.  Plant  row  No.  1 
with  corn  from  ear  No.  1,  row  No.  2  from  ear  No.  2, 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  89 

until  a  row  50  hills  long  is  planted  from  each  ear  that 
is  to  be  tested.  A  selection  of  50  ears  makes  a  con- 
venient number  for  an  ear-to-row  test.  Every  tenth 
row  should  be  used  as  a  check  row.  Ten  ears  may  be 
selected  for  this  purpose.  These  same  ten  ears  should  be 
used  in  planting  all  of  the  check  rows,  each  ear  planting 
the  same  number  of  hills  in  each  row.  Check  ear  No.  1 


FIG.  .26.  —  Remnants  of  an  ear-to-row  test. 

should  be  used  in  planting  the  first  five  hills  in  each  check 
row.  Check  ear  No.  2  should  be  used  for  the  second 
five,  check  ear  No.  3  for  the  third  five,  and  so  on  until 
the  fifty  hills  in  each  are  planted,  five  hills  from  each  of 
the  ten  ears.  It  is  well  to  plant  four  or  five  kernels  per  hill 
in  order  to  insure  a  perfect  stand.  When  the  plants  are 
five  or  six  inches  high,  each  hill  should  be  thinned  down  to 
three  plants.  More  reliable  results  are  secured  when  the 


90 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


test  is  made  in  duplicate,  the  second  series  of  rows  being 
some  distance  from  the  first.  At  harvest  time  each  row 
is  husked  separately,  and  the  yield  is  determined  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  variety  test.  Seed  corn  is  not  selected 
from  the  rows  giving  the  highest  yield,  because  cross- 
pollination  has  taken  place,  and  probably  the  low  as  well 


FIG.  27. —  A  corn-breeding  plot.    Rows  1,  3,  and  4  have  been  detasseled. 

as  the  high  yielding  ears  are  represented  in  the  ears  of 
each  row.  The  ear-to-row  test  is  only  a  method  of  picking 
out  the  highest  yielding  ears,  and  not  for  the  production 
of  seed  corn.  When  the  rows  are  planted,  only  a  portion 
of  the  ear  is  used,  the  remainder  being  preserved  for 
crossing  the  next  year. 

69.  The  breeding  plot.  —  The  remnants  of  the  four 
or  five  highest  yielding  ears  are  planted  the  next  season 
in  the  breeding  plot.  This  plot  should  be  some  distance 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  91 

from  other  corn  fields,  to  prevent  mixing.  The  plot 
necessarily  must  be  small.  Rows  twenty-five  hills  in 
length  and  as  many  rows  as  the  remnants  will  plant  is 
the  usual  size.  The  remnant  of  the  highest  yielding  ear 
is  used  as  the  sire,  the  three  or  four  other  remnants  as 
the  dam  or  female  of  the  cross.  The  sire  ear  should  be 
used  to  plant  every  third  row.  In  order  to  make  it  reach 
as  far  as  possible,  these  rows  should  be  planted  thinly, 
usually  two  kernels  per  hill.  The  remnants  of  the  other 
ears  are  used  to  plant  the  rows  between  the  sire  rows. 


FIG.  28.  —  A  multiplying  plot,  out  of  the  reach  of  pollen  from  other  corn. 

When  the  tassels  begin  to  appear,  the  plot  should  be 
visited  each  day  and  tassels  removed  from  the  middle 
rows.  This  will  insure  the  pollen  from  the  highest  yield- 
ing ear  fertilizing  the  plants  produced  from  the  remnant 
of  the  three  next  highest  yielding  ears.  If  the  rows 
planted  by  each  ear  are  recorded,  the  pedigree  of  the  corn 
can  be  determined  for  each  ear.  At  harvest  time  the 
rows  from  each  are  harvested  separately. 

70.  The  multiplying  plot.  —  The  multiplying  plot 
is  planted  next  year  from  the  ears  grown  in  the  detasseled 
rows.  This  plot,  too,  should  be  a  distance  from  other 
corn  fields.  The  multiplying  plot,  as  the  name  indicates, 


92  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

is  simply  a  plot  to  increase  the  supply  of  seed  in  order  to 
plant  an  entire  field  the  next  year.  Some  of  the  best  ears 
from  the  breeding  plot  and  also  from  the  multiplying 
plot  should  be  taken  back  to  the  ear-to-row  test  each 
year.  This  method  gives  an  opportunity  for  comparison 
of  the  improved  strain  with  the  general  crop. 

71.  Corn  judging.  —  Within  the  past  few  years  corn 
shows  have  become  quite  common  throughout  the  corn 
growing  sections  of  the  country.  They  have  done  and  are 
doing  a  great  service  in  creating  a  wider  interest  in  the 
study  of  corn  growing,  and  in  showing  the  possibilities 
of  improving  the  quality  of  the  crop.  The  general  plan 
of  conducting  the  contest  has  much  to  do  with  the  bene- 
fits to  be  derived  from  the  show.  Too  frequently,  per- 
haps, the  show  evolves  into  a  contest  to  determine  which 
exhibitor  has  best  solved  the  problem  of  the  proper  rate 
of  planting  to  grow  large  ears,  and  of  his  ability  to  select 
a  good  show  sample.  Quite  frequently  it  is  said  at  a  sjjow 
by  a  defeated  contestant,  that,  although  he  did  notrwin 
the  prize,  he  has  the  consolation  of  knowing  that  he 
produces  more  corn  of  a  better  quality  per  acre  than  does 
the  exhibitor  who  carries  off  the  prize.  This,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  in  the  paragraph  on  the  rate  of  planting,  is 
quite  frequently  due  to  the  fact  that  many  exhibitors  have 
learned  that  corn  when  planted  thinly  produces  a  higher 
percentage  of  large,  fine  looking  ears,  than  when  planted 
at  the  normal  rate,  or  at  a  rate  that  would  produce  a 
higher  yield  per  acre.  Many  seedsmen  plant  thinly 
in  order  to  grow  a  greater  number  of  large,  well-propor- 
tioned seed  ears  per  acre.  This  practice,  of  course,  as 
shown  in  the  discussion  of  field  selection,  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  since  the  excellence  of  such  ears  is  due  to 
environment  and  not  to  heredity.  The  greatest  service 


CORN  OR  MAIZE 


93 


perhaps  that  has  been  and  can  be  rendered  by  the  corn 
show  to  the  growers  of  the  community  is  to  be  found 
in  the  lessons  of  the  importance  of  maturity,  the  vitality 
of  the  seed  corn,  and  the  possibilities  of  improvement  in 
the  uniformity  of  the  product. 


FIG.  29.  —  A  good  sample  of  show  corn. 

INSECT   AND    FUNGOUS   DISEASES 

72.  Insects.  —  The   farmer   has   many   difficulties   to   over- 
come in  growing  a  profitable  crop  of  corn,  and  among  them  insect 
troubles  often  have  no  small  place.     Some  kinds  of  insects  are 
always  present  in  the  corn  field,  but  the  damage  done  by  them  is 
comparatively  small,  while  others  may  appear  in  such  numbers 
in  certain  years  as  to  cause  serious  trouble  and  sometimes  greatly 
reduce  the  yield.     Of  the  many  insects  that  attack  the  corn 
plant  only  a  few  can  be  discussed  in  this  book. 

73.  The    wire-worm.  —  Almost     every    one     has    seen    the 
beetles  which  when  placed  on  their  backs  will  jump  up  into  the 
air  with  a  clicking  sound  and  light  right  side  up.     They  are 
known  as  the  "  click  beetle,"  and  are  the  adult  form  of  the  wire- 
worm.     The  eggs  are  laid  usually  in  grass  land.     The  larvae 


94  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

which  hatch  from  them  require  from  three  to  five  years  to  com- 
plete their  growth.  The  second  year  after  grass  land  has  been 
planted  in  corn,  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  newly  planted  kernels 
and  upon  the  roots  of  the  young  plants.  Serious  damage  some- 
times results.  Quite  frequently  it  becomes  necessary  to  replant 
the  field.  The  larvae  become  full  grown  in  midsummer  and  after 
pupation,  which  lasts  three  or  four  weeks,  the  adult  beetles 
appear.  The  adults  fly  to  the  grass  lands  and  deposit  eggs  for 
a  new  brood.  No  satisfactory  method  has  been  recommended 
to  prevent  their  ravages.  They  may  be  held  in  check  quite 
effectively  by  fall  plowing,  which  kills  many  of  the  larvae,  and 
also  many  of  the  adults.  The  practice  of  a  short  rotation, 
which  allows  the  field  to  remain  in  grass  but  one  year,  will 
largely  prevent  their  increase  to  such  numbers  as  would  seriously 
injure  the  corn  crop. 

74.  The  grub-worm.  —  The  large  May  beetles  or  June  bugs 
which  are  numerous  during  early  summer  are  the  parent  form 
of  the  white  grub-worm.  Like  the  click  beetle,  the  June  bug  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  meadow  and  pasture  lands,  usually  in  June  or  July. 
The  young  grubs  live  upon  the  grass  roots,  and  require  about 
two  years  to  become  full  grown.  When  sod  lands  are  plowed 
and  put  into  corn,  the  grubs,  being  deprived  of  the  grass  roots, 
attack  the  roots  of  the  corn.  If  the  field  has  been  in  grass  for 
some  time  previous  to  plowing,  the  grubs  may  be  numerous,  and 
since  there  are  so  few  corn  plants  in  comparison  to  the  grasses 
per  acre,  many  grubs  may  be  found  at  work  on  the  roots  of  one 
corn  plant.  As  many  as  25  grubs  have  been  found  on  one  hill, 
in  fields  that  were  badly  infested  with  them.  When  the  grubs 
are  numerous,  they  do  serious  damage,  sometimes  destroying  the 
entire  crop.  The  most  effective  means  of  controlling  them  is, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  wire-worm,  the  use  of  a  short  rotation  and 
practicing  summer  or  fall  plowing.  Sometimes  if  hogs  are  turned 
into  the  field  they  will  follow  the  plow  and  destroy  many  of  the 
grubs. 

75.  The  cut-worm.  —  The  cut-worm  is  a  common  foe  of 
many  farm  and  garden  crops.  It  gets  its  name  from  its  well- 
known  habit  of  eating  only  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  cut  off  the 
plant,  thus  leaving  a  path  of  destruction  as  it  proceeds  from  plant 
to  plant.  The  adult  form  is  a  moth,  which  lays  its  eggs  princi- 
pally in  sod  lands.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  midsummer  and  the 


CORN   OR  MAIZE  95 

larva  becomes  partially  grown  before  winter.  After  passing  the 
winter  in  the  ground,  it  wakes  up  in  the  spring  and  lays  low  the 
plants  that  come  in  its  way.  There  is  no  practical  means  of 
controlling  its  attacks  upon  the  corn.  A  mixture  of  wheat  bran, 
Paris  green,  and  molasses  may  be  used  effectively  in  controlling 
it  on  small  areas,  but  this  is  hardly  practicable  in  the  corn  field. 

76.  The   corn-root    louse.  —  The    corn-root   lice    are   very 
interesting  insects.     They  are  interesting  because  the  ants  which 
so  carefully  guard  and  care  for  them  are  often  given  credit  for  the 
damage  done.     If  a  nest  of  the  small  brown  ants  is  broken  open 
in  the  fall  or  winter,  usually  there  will  be  found  the  eggs  of  the 
corn-root  louse  carefully  stored  away.     When  spring  comes,  the 
ants  carry  the  lice  eggs  to  the  roots  of  the  smart  weeds,  where 
they  hatch  and  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  roots.     If  corn  is  planted 
near  by,  the  ants  will  carry  the  lice  to  the  roots  of  the  young  corn 
plants  on  which  they  will  feed,  and  if  they  are  plentiful,  will 
cause  the  corn  to  have  a  stunted  appearance  and  the  leaves  will 
turn  red  and  yellow.     When  such  areas  are  seen  in  the  corn  field, 
usually  the  ants  are  credited  with  the  injury,  since  they  are  seen 
busily  engaged  about  the  base  of  the  corn  plant.     The  facts  are, 
however,  that  the  ants  are  only  indirectly  responsible  for  the 
injury.     They  care  for  and  protect  the  lice  because  the  latter 
excrete  from  a  pair  of  small  tubes  on  the  back  part  of  the  abdomen 
a  sweet,  honey-like  fluid    upon  which  the  ants  feed  with  great 
relish.     So  long  have  they  looked  after  the  welfare  of  the  lice 
that  the  latter  are  now  dependent  upon  them,  and  if  the  ants  are 
destroyed,  the  lice  soon  perish.     The  destruction  of  the  ants, 
therefore,  is  the  means  of  controlling  the  lice.     This  may  be  done 
by  digging  up  the  nest  in  winter  or  by  killing  them  by  pouring  a 
quantity  of  carbon  bisulphide  into  the  nest  and  covering  it  over 
with  a  blanket  to  retain  the  fumes. 

77.  The  corn  root-worm.  —  Growers  often  wonder  why  their 
corn  blows  over  in  some  fields  and  not  in  others.     If  the  corn  that 
blows  over  is  in  a  field  that  has  been  in  corn  for  two  years  or  more 
in  succession,  the  corn  root- worm  may  be  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
This  insect  has  been  a  serious  pest  in  many  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, particularly  in  those  sections  where  rotation  of  crops  is  not 
regularly  practiced.     The  eggs  of  the  corn  root-worm  are  laid  in 
the  ground  near  the  base  of  the  stalk  sometime  in  the  fall.     They 
hatch  in  June  and  the  root- worm  feeds  on  the  roots  of  the  growing 


96  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

corn  plant,  first  on  the  small  roots,  then  burrowing  into  the  larger 
ones.  The  root  system  is  seriously  injured  if  the  worms  are 
plentiful,  and  a  rain  with  some  wind  will  cause  the  corn  to  blow 
over.  The  worms  are  about  one-half  inch  in  length  with  a  red 
or  brown  head.  In  late  summer  they  enter  the  pupa  stage  and 
soon  come  out  as  adult  beetles.  The  adult  beetles  are  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  long.  The  adult  of  the  Northern  corn 
root-worm  is  a  plain  grass-green  in  color,  while  that  of  the  South- 
ern corn  root-worm  is  yellowish  green  with  twelve  black  spots  on 
the  back.  The  larvae  of  the  two  species  are  very  similar.  The 
adults  feed  on  the  corn  silks  in  the  fall,  and  the  farmer  often 
thinks  they  are  seriously  affecting  the  corn,  but  they  have  done 
all  the  damage  they  can  do,  except  to  lay  their  eggs  which  will 
hatch  the  following  spring.  The  Southern  corn  root- worm  is  not 
common  in  the  Northern  States.  The  Northern  corn  root- worm 
is  more  common  and  often  it  does  considerable  damage.  The 
latter  is  easily  controlled  because  the  larvae  feed  on  no  other 
roots  except  those  of  the  corn,  so  a  simple  rotation  will  starve 
them  out.  In  the  case  of  the  Southern  corn  root-worm  the 
rotation  of  crops  will  not  control  the  insect  to  so  great  an  extent, 
because  the  larvae  of  this  species  feed  on  the  roots  of  other  plants. 
78.  Fungous  diseases. — Wherever  corn  is  grown,  corn  smut 
is  found.  This  fungus  attacks  the  ear,  tassel,  leaves,  or  the  stalk 
of  the  plant,  developing  at  maturity  into  a  large  mass  filled  with 
small,  powdery  black  spores.  The  fungus  may  attack  the  plant 
any  time  after  it  is  a  couple  of  feet  in  height  until  it  nears  matur- 
ity. The  spores  may  remain  in  the  field  from  the  previous  year, 
or  they  may  be  carried  there  in  manure  or  by  the  wind.  During 
the  summer  they  are  blown  about  by  the  wind,  and  fall  upon  the 
growing  plant.  If  they  light  upon  the  tender  part  of  the  plant, 
and  if  moisture  is  present,  they  start  to  grow.  Therefore  the 
tassel,  silk,  brace  rootSj  and  the  base  of  the  leaves  afford  the  most 
favorable  locations  for  growth.  The  damage  done  each  year 
has  been  estimated  at  one  or  two  per  cent  of  the  crop,  while  in  a 
year  of  extremely  favorable  conditions  for  it,  the  loss  may  be 
much  greater.  The  treatment  of  the  seed  before  planting  to  kill 
the  spores  does  not  greatly  assist  in  controlling  the  disease,  since 
the  spores  are  carried  from  field  to  field  by  the  wind.  The  only 
effective  means  of  controlling  it  is  by  going  into  the  field  several 
times  during  the  season  and  cutting  off  and  destroying  the 


CORN  OE  MAIZE  97 

diseased  portion  of  the  stalk.  Corn  stover  affected  with  smut  is 
thought  by  many  farmers  to  cause  illness  to  animals  to  which  it  is 
fed.  In  experiments  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  corn  smut 
is  the  cause  of  illness  among  animals,  it  was  fed  in  comparatively 
large  amounts  to  groups  of  animals,  and  the  results  carefully 
noted.  In  no  case  did  the  animals  show  any  effects  from  the 
feeding  of  the  smut. 

79.  Ear-rots.  —  It  is  the  very  general  opinion  of  farmers  that 
the  ear-rots  of  corn  are  caused  by  adverse  weather  conditions. 
Careful  studies  of  these  diseases  will  show  that  they  are  caused 
by  a  fungous  growth,  and  while  the  weather  conditions  may  be 
favorable  or  unfavorable  for  the  growth  of  fungus,  it  is  not  the 
direct  cause  of  the  trouble.     There  are  several  kinds  of  ear-rots, 
but  their  appearance  on  the  ear  is  so  similar  as  to  be  generally 
regarded  as  one  form.     The  most  common  is  the  Diplodia,  or 
dry  rot,  which  attacks  the  husks,  kernels,  and  the  cob  of  the  corn, 
causing  the  husks  to  stick  to  the  ear.     The  ear  becomes  dark  in 
color,  often  nearly  black,  except  for  the  white  mold-like  growth 
which  is  abundant  between  the  rows  of  kernels.     It  is  a  common 
practice  at  husking  time  to  throw  the  ears  of  corn  affected  with 
this  disease  on  the  ground.     This  practice  is  the  means  of  spread- 
ing the  disease  and  giving  the  best  opportunity  for  its  being 
carried  over  the  winter.     The  spores  from  the  ears  thrown  on  the 
ground  spread  to  the  corn  stalks,  where  they  make  a  slight  growth. 
The  next  year  the  spores  are  spread  by  the  wind  to  the  growing 
corn,  where,  if  weather  conditions  are  favorable,  they  develop 
into  the  disease.     The  Illinois  Experiment  Station  has  found 
that  stalks,  after  having  been  plowed  under  for  two  years,  still 
retain  the  spores  that  will  germinate  under  favorable  conditions. 
This  station,  therefore,  recommends  that   diseased  ears  be  de- 
stroyed.    It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  burn  the  stalks  on  a  field  that  is 
badly  affected.     It  was  found,  further,  that  corn  grown  in  a 
rotation  was  not  so  badly  affected  as  that  grown  under  a  con- 
tinuous cropping  system. 

Beside  the  dry  rot,  there  are  several  species  of  fusarium  that 
attack  the  ear  in  much  the  same  way.  The  casual  observer  would 
not  be  able  to  distinguish  them  from  the  dry  rot. 

80.  Rust    and    bacterial     diseases.  —  Corn   is    affected    by 
several  kinds  of  leaf  rusts  and  bacterial  diseases,  but  the  damage 
done  is  usually  small. 

H 


98  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

81.  Protection  of  seed  corn  from  crows  and  rodents.  — 
Crows  and  rodents  sometimes  do  considerable  damage  to  corn 
by  digging  up  the  newly  planted  kernels  or  by  pulling  up  the 
young  plants  to  get  the  kernel.  Trouble  from  these  sources  can 
be  largely  overcome  by  treating  the  seed  corn  before  planting 
with  coal  or  pine  tar.  The  tar,  slightly  warm,  should  be  applied 
to  the  shelled  seed  at  the  rate  of  about  one  table  spoonful  to  each 
nine  or  ten  quarts  of  corn.  Stir  the  mixture  until  each  kernel  is 
covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  tar,  then  add  a  handful  of  air  slaked 
lime  or  wood  ashes,  and  stir  again.  The  ashes  or  lime  prevent  the 
kernels  from  sticking  together.  After  drying,  the  seed  is  ready 
to  plant. 


CHAPTER  V 
WHEAT 

WHEAT  culture  has  occupied  the  attention  of  man  ever 
since  he  progressed  far  enough  to  record  his  history.  At 
the  beginning  of  records  some  3000  years  B.C.,  wheat  cul- 
ture occupied  an  important  place  in  the  affairs  of  man. 

82.  History.  —  In  very  ancient  Egyptian  monuments, 
older  than  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  kernels  of  this  cereal 
have  been  found.  Records  of  ancient  China  show  that 
wheat  was  cultivated  there  2700  years  B.C.,  while  the  lake 
dwellers  of  Western  Switzerland  cultivated  wheat  as  early 
as  the  Stone  Age.  The  existence  of  different  names  for 
wheat  in  most  ancient  languages  gives  reasons  for  believing 
that  it  was  cultivated  long  before  the  dawn  of  recorded 
history.  The  development  of  wheat,  therefore,  has  been 
coincident  with  that  of  civilization.  Its  importance  to  the 
civilized  nations  to-day  is  perhaps  no  greater  than  it  was 
centuries  ago,  with  its  more  primitive  culture,  to  a  more 
primitive  people.  The  origin  of  the  wheat  plant  is  largely 
a  matter  of  speculation.  The  ancient  Chinese  considered 
it  a  gift  direct  from  Heaven.  The  Egyptians  attributed  its 
origin  to  the  mythical  god  of  the  Nile,  while  the  Greeks 
believed  it  to  have  been  presented  to  their  nation  by 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  Agriculture.  Botanists  are  not 
agreed  as  to  the  primitive  plants  from  which  it  has  devel- 
oped. Wheat  plants  growing  wild  have  been  found,  but 
it  has  never  been  clearly  shown  that  they  were  not  planted 


100  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

by  roaming  tribes  in  their  journeys  across  the  country. 
Recently,  however,  a  wild  wheat  has  been  found  growing 
in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  countries  which  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  an  ancestral  or  closely  related  form,  from 
which,  or  from  a  common  ancestor  of  which,  our  present 
day  wheat  has  developed.  The  wheat  plant  is  so  old 
that  it  is  a  most  difficult  task  to  determine  its  ancient 
family  record,  It  is  believed  by  De  Candolle  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates, 
and  from  there  to  have  spread  at  first  into  China  and 
Egypt,  and  later  to  have  been  carried,  with  the  spread 
of  civilization,  into  all  temperate  parts  of  the  world. 
So  far  as  is  known,  it  was  not  grown  in  America  until 
after  the  discovery  of  this  continent  by  Columbus. 

83.  Botanical  characters.  —  Wheat  is  an  annual  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  Hordae  of  the  grass  family.     The  prom- 
inent characters  that  distinguish  the  species  of  this  tribe 
are  the  one  to  many  flowered  spikelets  which  are  sessile, 
and  arranged  alternately  upon  the  rachis,  forming  a  spike. 
Rye,  barley,  and  rice  are  closely  related  to  wheat.     Wheat 
belongs  to  the  genus   Triticum,  of  which  it  is  the  only 
prominent  species,  and  is  characterized  by  one  spikelet 
at  each  joint  of  the  rachis,  the  outer  glumes  of  which 
terminate  in  a  beak.     The  flowering  glume  may  have 
either  short  or  long  awns,  or  may  be  awnless.     Wheat 
may  be  either  a  fall  or  a  spring  annual,  some  varieties 
being  adapted  to  fall  and  others  to  spring  seeding.     When 
the  seeding  is  done  in  the  fall,  it  is  called  winter  wheat ; 
when  seeded  in  the  spring,  it  is  called  spring  wheat. 

84.  The  roots.  —  The  roots  of  the  wheat  plant,  like 
those  of  the  corn,  may  be  divided  into  temporary  and 
permanent  systems.     When  a  kernel  of  wheat  starts  to 
grow,  it  sends  out  a  whorl  of  three  roots,  which  form  the 


WHEAT 


101 


temporary  root  system.  After  the  plumule  unfolds 
above  the  ground,  the  permanent  roots  start  out  from  a 
node  below  the  surface.  For  a  short  time  both  the 
permanent  and  the  temporary  roots  serve  the  needs  of 
the  young  plant,  but  as  the  permanent  system  develops 
the  temporary  system  withers 
and  dies.  The  permanent  roots 
increase  rapidly  in  length  and 
develop  into  a  complex  fibrous 
root  system,  which  serves  the 
plant  throughout  the  remainder 
of  its  life.  The  permanent  roots 
branch  freely,  as  many  as  eight 
to  ten  branches  being  given  off 
from  one  inch  of  the  main  roots. 
Most  of  the  root  system  of  the 
wheat  plant  is  in  the  upper  15 
to  20  inches  of  the  soil.  Below 
this  depth  it  does  not  branch 
freely,  but  sends  long  runners 
down  deep  into  the  subsoil. 
The  depth  to  which  the  roots 
will  penetrate  depends  largely 
upon  the  physical  condition  of 
the  subsoil,  and  upon  the  loca- 
tion of  the  water  table  during 
the  growing  season.  In  loose 

soils,  with  the  water  table  several  feet  below  the  surface, 
wheat  roots  may  go  down  6  or  7  feet  or  more.  The  roots 
of  the  permanent  system  do  not  vary  greatly  in  diameter, 
being  about  the  same  size  their  entire  length. 

85.   The  stem  or  culm.  —  During  the  early  life  of  the 
plant  the  internodes  are  short,  giving  at  this  time  the  ap- 


FIG.  30.  —  Diagram  showing 
how  the  plant  increases  in  height 
by  lengthening  of  the  inter- 
nodes. 


102 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


pearance  of  a  leafy,  low-growing  plant.  A  little  later, 
however,  the  internodes  elongate  quite  rapidly,  pushing 
the  nodes  farther  apart  and  lengthening  the  stem.  Before 
this  stage  begins,  buds  appear  at  the  lower  nodes  and 
develop  by  lengthening  their  internodes 
into  full-sized  stems  along  with  the 
lengthening  of  the  main  stem.  This  is 
called  tillering  or  stooling.  Thus  one 
seed  normally  produces  several  stems, 
sometimes  as  many  as  a  dozen  or  more. 
The  number  of  tillers  produced  depends 
upon  several  factors.  Some  varieties 
naturally  produce  more  tillers  than 
others.  Thin  seeding  promotes  the 
growth  of  a  larger  number  of  tillers 
than  a  thicker  rate  of  seeding.  Winter 
wheat  usually  tillers  more  than  spring 
wheat.  Poor  or  infertile  soils  retard  the 
production  of  tillers.  Thus  it  is  seen 
that  many  more  heads  or  spikes  are  pro- 
duced on  a  given  area  than  there  were 
kernels  planted,  the  number  depending 
upon  the  several  factors  above  mentioned. 
The  length  of  the  stem,  when  fully 
grown,  varies  with  the  variety  and  soil. 
Some  varieties  grow  only  2.5  to  3  feet 
in  height,  while  others  under  the  same 
conditions  may  reach  a  height  of  4  or  5  feet.  Aside 
from  the  variation  in  the  length  of  the  stem,  there  is 
also  found  variation  in  the  number  of  tillers,  thickness 
of  the  stem  wall,  and  in  the  number  of  nodes.  In  describ- 
ing or  identifying  varieties  of  wheat,  the  color  of  the  stem, 
particularly  that  of  the  upper  internode,  is  of  considerable 


FIG.  31.  —  Dia- 
gram showing  stool- 
ing  or  tillering  in 
wheat. 


WHEAT 


103 


service.  The  stem  of  the  wheat  plant  in  most  varieties 
is  hollow,  excepting  at  the  node,  where  it  is  solid.  In 
some  few  varieties  the  stem  is  partly  or  entirely  filled  with 
pith.  The  number  of  pounds  of  straw  required  to  pro- 
duce a  bushel  of  grain  varies 
greatly  with  the  variety  and 
with  the  soil.  At  the  Ohio 
Station,  with  45  varieties,  dur- 
ing a  period  of  13  years,  the 
weight  of  straw  varied  from  92 
to  132  pounds  per  bushel  of 
grain,  the  average  being  about 
105  pounds  of  straw  per  bushel 
of  grain.  When  manure  or 
fertilizer  was  applied  at  this 
station,  there  was  a  greater 
proportionate  increase  in  the 
weight  of  the  straw  than  in 
the  grain. 

86.  The  leaves.  —  As  in  the 
corn  plant,  the  leaves  are  ar- 
ranged alternately,  one  leaf 
growing  from  each  node  of  the 
stem.  While  the  plant  dur- 
ing its  early  stage  of  growth 
has  a  leafy  appearance,  after 
the  internodes  have  become 
full  length,  the  leaves  appear 
to  be  few  in  number.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
then  arranged  on  a  lengthened  stem.  The  leaves  of  wheat 
are  short  and  narrow  as  compared  with  those  of  the  corn 
plant.  They  vary  in  different  varieties  in  length,  width, 
smoothness,  and  prominence  of  veins.  The  leaf  sheaths  of 


FIG.  32. —  Variation  in  number 
of  culms  per  plant. 


104 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


wheat  and  rye  are  hairy,  while  in  barley  and  oats  they  are 
smooth.  The  lower  leaves  wither  and  die  as  the  plant 
approaches  maturity,  and  at  the  beginning  of  ripening  only 
the  upper  leaf  and  the  topmost  internode  are  green. 
87.  The  spikelets.  —  A  spikelet  is  composed  of  two 
outer  glumes,  inclosing  from  two  to 
five  flowers,  each  with  a  flowering 
glume  and  palea.  In  the  wheat  plant 
only  one  spikelet  grows  from  each  joint 
of  the  rachis.  The  rachis  may  be  de- 
fined as  that  part  of  the  stem  which 
passes  up  through  the  head.  The 
joints  of  the  rachis  are  close  together, 
thus  forming  a  compact  head  or  spike. 
The  number  of  spikelets  per  head 
varies  with  different  varieties,  the 
thickness  of  planting,  the  condition  of 
the  soil,  and  with  the  weather.  The 
number  varies  from  10  to  as  many  as  50 
or  more.  In  fertile  soils  more  spike- 
lets  are  produced  per  head  than  in  poor 
soils.  A  thin  rate  of  seeding  also  favors 
the  production  of  a  larger  number  of 
spikelets.  Some  varieties  naturally 
have  a  larger  number  of  spikelets  per 
head  than  do  other  varieties.  At  the 
base  of  the  head  there  are  usually  one  or  more  sterile 
spikelets,  —  that  is,  spikelets  in  which  the  flowers  do  not 
become  fertilized  and  produce  kernels.  This  varies  with 
the  growing  season  and  with  the  rate  of  planting.  Un- 
favorable growing  seasons  and  a  thick  rate  of  seeding  are 
favorable  for  a  large  number  of  sterile  spikelets.  The 
spike  or  head  may  vary  in  length  and  in  shape.  The 


FIG.  33.  —  Variation 
in  size  of  head  and 
number  of  spikelets. 


WHEAT 


105 


shape  may  be  tapering  to  the  tip,  tapering  both  ways 
from  the  middle,  tapering  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  or 
it  may  be  uniform  throughout  the  length  of  the  spike. 
The  outer  glume  in  the  wheat  spikelet  is  oval  in  shape  and 
terminates  in  a  beak  which  varies  in  sharpness  and  length. 


FIG.  34.  —  A  spikelet  of  wheat.     No.  1  shows  parts  in  position  as  they 
appear  on  the  head.     No.  2  shows  parts  dissected. 

The  outer  glumes  also  vary  in   color  and  they  may  be 
velvety  or  hairy,  or  smooth,  depending  upon  variety. 

88.  The  flowers.  —  Each  flower  is  inclosed  in  a  flower- 
ing glume  and  palea.  The  flowering  glume  is  larger  than 
the  palea  and  is  on  the  outer  side  of  the  kernel,  that  is, 
next  to  the  outer  glume.  The  tip  of  the  flowering  glume 
in  some  varieties  is  extended  into  an  awn  or  beard,  while 
in  others  no  awn  appears.  The  latter  are  called  beard- 


106  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

less,  awnless,  or  bald  varieties.  The  palea  is  a  thin,  mem- 
braneous glume,  the  edges  of  which  are  folded  inside  of 
the  flowering  glume.  The  flower  proper  is  inclosed  within 
and  consists  of  the  ovulary,  stigma,  and  stamens.  The 
stamens  are  three  in  number,  the  filament  of  which  is 
short  before  fertilization,  bearing  at  the  top  an  elongated 
anther.  The  stigma  is  composed  of  two  branches,  each 
provided  with  tiny,  feathery  branches  to  catch  the  pollen. 
Wheat  is  a  close  or  self-pollinated  plant.  When  the  time 
comes  for  fertilization,  the  filaments  of  the  stamens  rapidly 
elongate,  and  in  so  doing,  upset  the  anthers,  which  spill 
the  pollen  on  the  stigmas.  While  the  spikelet  may  have 
from  2  to  5  flowers,  usually  only  2  or  3  develop.  Those 
which  do  not  develop  are  called  sterile  flowers.  When 
seeded  thickly  or  on  poor  soil,  or  if  not  favored  with  good 
growing  weather,  fewer  flowers  develop.  Usually  2  or  3 
flowers  of  each  spikelet  develop,  however,  and  under 
favorable  conditions  as  many  as  5  may  mature  grains. 
The  number  of  kernels  per  spike,  therefore,  varies  greatly 
in  the  same  field,  or  even  in  different  spikes  of  the  same 
plant.  In  the  threshing  of  wheat,  the  kernel  is  liberated 
from  the  outer  and  flowering  glumes  and  from  the  palea, 
all  of  which  taken  together  are  called  the  chaff. 

89.  The  kernel.  —  After  fertilization  the  ovulary  devel- 
ops into  an  oblong  grain,  with  a  deep  groove  or  furrow 
on  the  side  next  to  the  palea.  Great  variation  in  size, 
shape,  color,  and  hardness  is  found  in  the  kernels  of  differ- 
ent varieties.  Slight,  or  in  some  cases  marked,  variations 
are  found  among  the  kernels  of  a  single  spike.  Upon 
examination  of  the  kernel,  a  lot  of  short  hairs  will  be  found 
at  the  tip.  This  is  called  the  brush.  If  a  cross-section 
be  made,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  kernel  is  made  up  of  several 
distinct  parts.  The  outside  covering  of  the  kernel  is 


WHEAT  107 

made  up  of  three  layers,  which  are  separated  only  with 
difficulty ;  taken  together  they  are  called  the  bran.  In 
the  milling  of  wheat,  for  the  making  of  flour,  the  bran  is 
removed  and  used  as  stock  feed,  and  does  not  enter  into 
the  making  of  flour.  The  bran  makes  up  about  5  per  cent 
of  the  entire  kernel.  Surrounding  the  kernel,  immediately 
under  the  bran,  is  a  single  layer  of  large  cells  called  the 
aleurone  layer,  comprising  3  to  4  per  cent  of  the  kernel. 
In  the  milling  of  wheat  this  aleurone  layer  is  not  included 
in  the  flour.  Under  the  aleurone  layer  lies  the  endosperm, 
which  is  made  up  of  thin  walled  starch  cells.  The  en- 
dosperm makes  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  kernel, 
from  82  to  85  per  cent,  most  of  which  enters  into  the 
making  of  flour.  At  the  base  of  the  kernel  at  the  side 
opposite  the  crease  will  be  found  the  small  embryo  or 
germ.  The  germ  of  the  wheat  kernel  is  small  in  propor- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  kernel,  when  compared  with  that  of 
corn. 

TYPES   OF   WHEAT 

90.  Classification.  - —  The  cultivated  species  of  the  genus 
Triticum  may  be  grouped  into  eight  distinct  classes  or 
types.  According  to  almost  all  botanists,  only  three  of 
the  types  are  considered  as  distinct  species,  the  others 
being  sub-species.  The  following  outline,  arranged  by 
Hunt,  shows  the  relationship  of  the  eight  types  of  wheat : 

monococcum —  (1)  einkorn 

f  spelta  —  (2)  spelt 

|  dicoccum  —  (3)  emmer 

[  vulgare  —  (4)  common  wheat 
,  I  compactum  —  (5)  club  wheat 

s  |  turgidum  —  (6)  poulard  wheat 

[durum  —  (7)  durum  wheat 
polonicum —  Polish  wheat 


Triticum 


stativium 


i 


108 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


91.  Einkorn.  —  Einkorn  is  the  German  for  one  grain, 
and  this  type  of  wheat  is  so  named  because,  in  most  the 
common  varieties,  it  has  but  one  grain  per  spikelet. 
Einkorn  is  a  short-strawed,  narrow- 
leafed  plant,  with  a  compact,  heavily 
bearded  spike.  It  seldom  grows  to  a 
height  of  more  than  three  feet,  the  straw 
is  stiff  and  carries  the  head  erect  even 
when  ripe,  thus  giving  it  a  different  ap- 
pearance when  growing  in  the  field  from 
that  of  our  common  wheat.  Einkorn 
is  thought  to  be  one  of  the  more  prim- 
itive types,  and  more  closely  related  to 
the  original  forms  than  other  types.  It 
is  grown  in  a  limited  way  in  the  poor, 
stony  soils  of  southern  Europe.  It  has 
never  been  grown  in  the  United  States 
except  in  an  experimental  way. 

92.  Spelt.  —  When  seen  growing  in 
the  field,  spelt  looks  very  much  like  our 
common  wheat ;  but  if  we  examine  the 
spikelets,  they  will  be  found  to  be  quite 
different  from  those  of  common  wheat. 
The  spikelets  usually  contain  two  ker- 
nels, which  are  tightly  held  within  the 
glumes.  When  spelt  is  threshed,  un- 
like common  wheat,  the  kernels  are  not 
separated  from  the  glumes,  but  are 
retained  in  them.  Threshing  does  not  even  remove  the 
spikelets  from  the  rachis,  but  a  portion  of  it  is  broken  off 
and  retained  by  each  spikelet.  Spelt,  therefore,  cannot 
well  be  used  for  making  flour,  but  can  be  fed  to  live  stock 
without  further  threshing.  It  is  not  grown  in  the  United 


FIG.   35.  —  Einkorn. 


WHEAT 


109 


States  or  in  Canada,  but  it  is  grown  in  southern  Europe, 
where  it  is  used  as  feed  for  live  stock.  There  are  both 
spring  and  winter  varieties,  some  of  which 
are  bearded,  but  almost  all  of  which  are 
beardless.  It  is  doubtful  if  spelt  will  be  ex- 
tensively grown  in  any  part  of  the  United 
States. 

93.  Emmer.  —  Emmer  is  often  confused 
with,  and  sometimes  goes  under  the  name  of, 
spelt.  The  two  types  are,  however,  quite 
different.  The  stem  or 
culm  of  emmer  is  quite 
frequently  filled  with  pith, 
the  leaves  are  broader,  and 
it  is  more  heavily  bearded 
than  spelt.  The  spikelets 
of  spelt  are  farther  apart 
on  the  rachis  than  those 
of  emmer,  those  of  the 
latter  being  quite  close  to- 
gether, giving  a  compact 
appearance  to  the  spike. 
Like  spelt,  the  kernels  of 
emmer  are  retained  in  the 
glumes  after  threshing.  Emmer  is  not 
used  for  the  making  of  flour,  but  is 
useful  as  a  stock  feed.  It  is  grown  to 
some  extent  in  the  northern  states  of 
the  Great  Plains  of  the  United  States, 
where  it  usually  goes  by  the  name  of 
spelt.  It  is  more  drought-resistant  than  many  of  the  other 
grain  plants  and  therefore  may  develop  into  a  useful 
plant  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  this  country.  In  Europe 


FIG.    36.— 
Spelt. 


FIG.  37.  —  A  head  of 
emmer. 


110 


FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 


it  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  Russia,  Germany,  Italy, 
Spain,  and  in  a  very  limited  way  in  other  countries. 

94.  Common  wheat.  —  As  the  name  indicates,  this 
is  the  type  most  commonly  grown  in  the  wheat-growing 
countries  of  the  world.  The  botanical 
characters  of  this  type  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The 
cultural  methods  and  uses  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  pages  of  the  chapter. 
95.  Club  wheat.  —  This  type  of  wheat 
gets  its  name  from  the  short,  compact 
heads,  which  are  either  square  or  larger 
at  the  top  and  taper  toward  the  base. 
In  this  type  of  wheat  the  spikelets  are 
very  close  together  on  the  rachis,  so  close 
that  sometimes  they  almost  stand  at  right 
angles  to  it.  Three  or  four  grains  usu- 
ally develop  in  each  spikelet.  They 
may  be  either  white  or  red,  the  color 
depending  upon  the  variety.  Club  wheat 
has  a  short,  stiff  straw,  which  is  less 
liable  to  lodge  than  the  varieties  of 
common  wheat.  It  is  also  less  likely 
to  shatter,  because  the  glumes  hold  the 
kernels  more  tightly,  and  even  when 
the  crop  is  fully  ripe,  little  shattering 
occurs  during  harvesting.  This  type  of  wheat,  therefore, 
is  well  adapted  to  the  Pacific  Coast  region,  where,  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  rainfall,  it  may  be,  and  often 
is,  left  standing  in  the  field  for  several  weeks  after  ripening 
before  it  is  harvested.  Club  wheats  are  heavy  yielders 
as  compared  with  the  common  wheats.  While  the  heads 
are  short,  the  spikelets  are  close  together,  and  more 


FIG.  38.  —  Club 
wheat. 


WHEAT  111 

kernels  are  usually  produced  in  the  spikelets  than  in  the 
spikelets  of  common  wheats.  Their  general  methods 
of  culture  are  similar  to  those  of  the  common  wheats. 

96.  Poulard  wheat.  — •  Poulard  wheats  are  distinguished 
by  their  tall,   stiff  straws,   sometimes    filled  with  pith, 
broad,  hairy,  or  velvety  leaves,  broad  heads  with  short 
bristly  beards,  and  large,  hard  kernels.     Poulard  wheats 
are  not  grown,  except  in  an  experimental  way,  in  the 
United    States.     They    are    grown    in    Turkey,    Russia, 
France,  Egypt,  and  other  countries  bordering  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.     The  flour  made  from  them  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  and  in  the  making 
of  bread,  by  mixing  it  with  flour  from  common  wheat. 

97.  Durum  wheat.  —  This  type  is  very  similar  to  the 
poulard  wheats,   some  varieties,  in  fact,  being  hard  to 
distinguish    from    them.     It    differs    from    the    poulard 
wheat  in  having  smooth  leaves,  long,  heavy  beards,  and 
rather    pointed,    hard,    semi-transparent    kernels.     The 
beards  of  durum  wheat,  together  with  the  shape  of  the 
head,  give  to  it,  when  seen  at  a  little  distance,  the  appear- 
ance of  bearded  barley.     The  kernels  are  the  hardest  of 
any  of  the  wheats.     Durum  wheats  are  nearly  all  spring 
varieties,  adapted  to  hot,  dry  climates,  and  grow  well  in 
soils  that  are  slightly  alkaline.     They  are,  therefore,  well 
adapted  to  the  semi-arid  sections  of  the  Western  States, 
and  will  grow  in  soils  that  contain  too  much  alkali  to 
grow  the  common  varieties.     It  has  been  said  that  the 
introduction  of  the  durum  wheats  into  the  United  States 
has  greatly  increased  our  annual  production  of  wheat  by 
extending  the   wheat-growing   area  into   the   dry   alkali 
regions,  where  the  common  varieties  would  not  produce 
a  profitable  yield.     They  have  been  grown  in  the  United 
States  only  within  the  past  30  years.     Durum  wheat  is 


112 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


used  largely  in  the  making  of  macaroni,  and  is  often 
called  macaroni  wheat.  As  yet  it  is  not  used  to  a  great 
extent  in  the  making  of  bread  flour.  Some  mills,  however, 
have  milled  it  and  placed  the  flour  upon  the  market, 
and  in  the  opinion  of  many,  bread  made  from  it  is  to  be 
preferred  to  that  made  from  common  wheat.  Durum 
wheat  is  also  grown  in  Central  and 
South  America,  Russia,  and  the  Medi- 
terranean countries  of  Europe. 

98.  Polish  wheat.  —  Polish  wheat 
has  a  tall,  smooth,  pithy  straw,  a 
large  chaffy-appearing  head,  due  to  the 
loosely  arranged  spikelets,  and  large, 
long  kernels.  On  account  of  the  shape 
of  the  kernels,  this  type  of  wheat  is 
sometimes  called  giant  or  Jerusalem 
rye.  Polish  wheat  is  well  adapted  to 
arid  districts,  but  it  is  not  grown  in 
the  United  States  except  in  a  small 
way.  It  is  grown  in  Russia  and  the 
countries  of  the  Mediterranean  region. 
It  is  not  well  adapted  for  bread-mak- 
ing, unless  mixed  with  common  wheat, 
and  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  the 
making  of  macaroni,  spaghetti/  and 
other  similar  products. 

99.  Bread  wheats.  —  Of  the  eight  types  of  wheat, 
only  four,  — namely,  common,  club,  durum,  and  emmer, — 
are  at  present  of  economic  importance  in  the  United 
States.  Of  the  eight  types,  only  two  find  their  greatest 
usefulness  in  the  making  of  bread  or  pastries.  These 
are  the  common  and  club  wheats,  which  supply  not  only 
the  United  States,  but  the  whole  world,  wherever  wheat 


FIG.  39.  —  Polish 
wheat. 


WHEAT  113 

bread  is  used.  Durum,  poulard,  and  Polish  are  used  only 
in  a  limited  way  in  the  making  of  bread,  their  greatest 
usefulness  being  found  in  the  manufacture  of  macaroni, 
spaghetti,  and  other  similar  products.  Emmer,  spelt, 
and  einkorn  are  used  hi  the  feeding  of  live  stock.  Bread 
wheats  and  those  used  in  the  making  of  macaroni  may  be 
classed  in  several  different  ways.  They  may  be  divided 
into  two  groups  based  upon  the  time  of  sowing,  viz. 
spring  or  winter  wheats;  based  on  the  structure  of  the 
kernel,  viz.  hard  and  soft;  according  to  their  uses, 
viz.  bread  and  macaroni;  according  to  the  color  of  the 
grain,  viz.  red  and  white.  Most  often  the  classification 
used  is  a  combination.  Thus  spring  wheat  may  be  either 
white  or  red,  hard  or  soft,  used  either  for  bread  or  maca- 
roni. 

THE   USES    OF   WHEAT 

100.  General  uses.  —  The  wheat  crop  is  perhaps 
more  closely  related  to  the  welfare  of  mankind  than  is 
any  other  crop.  Almost  all  of  the  grain  from  the  world's 
wheat  crop  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  flour  for  human 
consumption,  although  a  small  amount  of  it  is  used 
in  the  feeding  of  animals,  the  grain  for  this  purpose  being 
principally  that  of  poor  quality  and  unsuitable  to  use  in 
the  making  of  flour.  In  the  milling  of  wheat  flour,  several 
by-products  result  which  are  important  live  stock  feeds, 
and  the  straw  also  is  used  for  the  feeding  and  bedding  of 
animals.  In  its  chemical  composition  and  palatability, 
the  wheat  grain  ranks  high  as  a  feed  for  live  stock,  but  the 
high  price  per  bushel  which  it  commands  for  flour-making 
purposes  prevents,  excepting  in  years  of  heavy  yield, 
its  use  as  feed  for  domestic  animals.  The  milling  of  wheat, 
the  grades  and  kinds  of  flour,  and  the  uses  of  the  by- 


114  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

products  of  milling  will  be  briefly  taken  up  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

101.  The  evolution  of  the  flour  mill.  — The  story  of  the 
processes  through  which  wheat  passes,  from  the  time  it 
reaches  the  mill  until  it  appears  on  our  tables  as  bread 
or  other  baked  foods,  is  a  long  one.  It  might  be  interest- 
ing to  trace  very  briefly  the  evolution  of  the  flour  mill, 
from  the  time  when  the  first  miller,  in  prehistoric  times, 
took  the  wheat  grain  from  the  stalk  and  used  his  teeth 
as  bur  stones.  The  simplest  milling  device  of  which  we 
know  is  the  hand-stone,  consisting  of  a  hollow  stone 
into  which  the  grain  was  placed,  and  a  crusher  with 
which  to  pound  it.  Four  thousand  years  later  came  the 
invention  of  the  saddle-stone,  a  marked  improvement 
over  the  hand-stone.  In  using  this  device  the  grain  was 
placed  on  the  concave  surface  of  the  lower  stone,  and 
rubbed  by  the  upper  stone,  which  worked  backward  and 
forward,  and  not  by  rolling  or  pounding.  The  saddle- 
stone  was  hi  very  general  use,  as  is  proved  by  the  pre- 
historic remains  of  almost  every  European  race.  A 
contemporary  of  the  saddle-stone  was  the  mortar,  used 
by  the  Greeks  and  other  nations. 

The  first  complete  grinding  machine  came  with  the 
invention  of  the  quern,  shortly  before  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  Here  the  grain  was  ground  with  a  cir- 
cular motion,  and  the  two  stones,  instead  of  being  loose, 
were  fastened  together.  At  first  the  grinding  surfaces 
were  flat,  but  later  they  were  grooved.  A  handle,  fitted 
into  a  hole  drilled  in  the  upper  stone,  was  the  means  by 
which  the  miller  caused  the  upper  stone  to  revolve  upon 
the  lower.  The  quern  is  still  commonly  used  in  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  China,  and  Japan. 

Women  were  the  millers  of  the  races  for  many  centuries. 


WHEAT  115 

Later  it  became  the  custom  to  compel  the  slaves  and  crim- 
inals to  grind  the  flour  and  bake  the  bread.  Still  later 
cattle  furnished  the  motive  power,  and  following  the  cattle- 
mill  came  the  water-mill,  first  used  by  the  Greeks  about 
50  years  B.C.  Not  until  several  hundred  years  later  was 
the  windmill  invented,  and  from  the  time  when  it  first 
came  into  use,  great  improvements  were  made  in  it  over 
the  original  type,  and  its  use  was  rapidly  extended.  In 
1784  we  have  the  invention  of  the  steam-mill  in  London. 
In  the  year  1870  there  was  introduced  in  Minnesota  a 
machine  which  was  to  revolutionize  the  milling  industry 
in  this  country.  The  purifier,  which  was  a  machine  for 
separating  middlings  and  flour,  enabled  the  miller  of  the 
Northwest  to  make  acceptable  flour  from  spring  wheat, 
which  had  hitherto  been  despised  on  account  of  its  dark 
color.  During  all  this  time  the  grinding  surfaces  of  the 
milling  machines  had  been  mill-stones,  but  in  1878  there 
was  introduced  into  this  country  the  roller-mill,  which 
marked  the  greatest  of  all  advances  in  the  milling  busi- 
ness. 

102.  Modern  milling.  —  In  modern  milling  there  are 
three  fundamental  processes,  viz.  cleaning,  tempering, 
and  grinding.  Each  of  these  three  main  processes  is  com- 
posed of  several  minor  processes.  The  object  of  cleaning 
is  to  remove  all  dust  or  dirt  and  foreign  seeds.  Special 
machinery  is  used  to  rid  the  wheat  of  foreign  seeds,  after 
which  the  grain  is  either  dry-cleaned  by  being  run  through 
scourers,  or  else  it  is  washed  and  dried.  The  next  process 
is  tempering  the  grain  by  the  application  of  heat  and  mois- 
ture, in  the  form  of  steam  or  water,  or  both.  This  toughens 
the  bran  so  that  it  will  not  crumble  into  fine  particles,  but 
will  break  off  in  large  pieces.  Then  comes  the  milling 
proper,  which  is  quite  a  complicated  process  and  cannot 


116  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

be  explained  here  in  detail.  The  grains  are  run,  first 
between  corrugated  iron  rollers,  where  they  are  cut  and 
broken,  but  not  crushed.  This  is  called  the  first  break, 
after  which  the  wheat  is  sifted  several  times  to  separate  a 
part  of  the  interior  from  the  rest  of  the  kernel.  The  scalp- 
ings,  as  the  bran  and  adhering  portions  of  the  interior  part 
of  the  grain  are  called,  are  then  run  through  another  set  of 
rollers,  with  finer  corrugations,  and  again  sifted.  This 
process  is  repeated  until  no  more  of  the  interior  may  be 
separated.  The  interior  of  the  grain  thus  removed  is  called 
middlings.  The  middlings  are  run  through  the  middlings 
purifier.  This  removes  the  germ  and  small  particles  of 
bran,  after  which  the  middlings  are  ground  between 
smooth  rollers,  sifted,  and  reground  until  they  are  of  the 
required  fineness,  which  an  expert  is  able  to  determine  by 
the  feel  and  color  of  the  flour. 

103.  Grades  and  kinds  of  flour.  —  Many  different  grades 
of  flour  result  from  the  modern  processes  of  milling,  based 
upon  the  purity  of  the  product,  that  is,  freedom  from  germ 
and  bran  particles.  The  finest  flour  is  the  patent  grade, 
which  may  be  further  graded  into  first  and  second  patent, 
while  the  lowest  grade  is  known  as  red  dog.  In  all  of  the 
large  mills,  and  in  many  of  the  smaller  ones,  great  care  is 
taken  to  maintain  uniform  quality  in  the  flour.  For  this 
purpose  an  expert  is  employed  to  make  actual  baking  tests 
of  grain  as  it  comes  to  the  elevator,  grinding  the  samples 
of  wheat  in  a  small  mill  made  for  that  purpose.  He  com- 
pares each  bake  with  that  made  from  a  standard  flour  put 
out  by  the  mill. » 

There  is  some  little  difference  in  the  composition  of  the 
hard  or  spring  wheat  flour  of  the  Northwest  and  the  soft 
or  winter  wheat  flour,  the  spring  wheat  flour  being  stronger, 
that  is,  containing  a  higher  percentage  of  gluten,  the  pres- 


WHEAT  117 

ence  of  which  enables  the  yeast-leavened  loaf  to  retain  its 
shape.  The  red  winter  wheat  flour  is  softer,  containing 
more  starch  and  less  gluten,  and  thus  is  better  flour  for 
quick  breads,  cake,  pastry,  etc.,  although  the  best  grades 
of  red  winter  wheat  flour  will  make  very  acceptable  yeast 
bread  of  excellent  flavor,  texture,  and  shape.  Many  millers 
now  follow  the  practice  of  blending  spring  and  winter 
wheats  in  making  flour,  and  thus  get  a  very  satisfactory 
flour  for  general  purposes.  The  very  soft  wheats  of  the 
Pacific  Coast,  containing  a  high  percentage  of  starch,  and 
being  very  weak  in  gluten,  are  used  almost  entirely  in  the 


FIG.  40.  —  Loaves  of  bread  illustrating  the  baking  qualities  of  flour  made 
from  different  varieties  of  wheat. 

making  of  pastry  flour.  Durum  wheat  flour  has  in  the 
past  been  used  chiefly  in  the  making  of  macaroni  and 
similar  products,  being  especially  well  adapted  to  this  use 
on  account  of  the  very  high  percentage  of  gluten  which 
it  contains.  It  is  quite  likely,  however,  that  it  will  soon 
come  into  common  use  as  bread  flour.  Bread  made  from 
durum  flour  is  a  rich  creamy  color,  and  has  an  excellent 
flavor. 

It  should  be  noted  that  there  are  great  variations  in 
wheat  of  the  same  kind,  especially  the  red  winter  wheats, 
as  to  yield,  and  also  as  to  bread-making  qualities.  The 
baking  of  bread  with  flour  made  from  certain  varieties  of 


118  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION- 

wheat  will  result  in  a  loaf  of  good  color  and  shape,  fine 
texture,  even  grain,  and  excellent  flavor,  while  that  made 
from  another  variety  of  this  same  sort  of  wheat  may  give  a 
loaf  gray  in  color,  coarse-textured,  poor  in  flavor,  and  of 
poor  shape.  These  differences  are  due  mainly  to  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the  gluten  present.  A  great 
opportunity  exists  for  the  farmer  to  improve  the  bread- 
making  qualities  of  his  wheat,  as  well  as  its  yield. 

Graham  flour  is  wheat  meal  made  by  grinding  the  whole 
wheat  kernel.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  there  is  very 
little  true  Graham  flour  on  the  market,  the  so-called 
Graham  flour  being  usually  a  mixture  of  a  poor  grade  of 
white  flour  and  bran. 

True  whole  wheat  flour  is  similar  to  Graham  flour,  but 
contains  only  the  inner  layer  of  bran,  and  since  the  cellu- 
lose is  in  very  finely  divided  particles,  it  is  not  nearly  so 
irritating  to  sensitive  digestive  organs  as  is  the  bran  in 
Graham  flour. 

104.  By-products  of  milling.  —  Usually  about  70  to  80  per 
cent  of  the  wheat  kernel,  depending  upon  the  variety  of  wheat, 
the  milling  process  to  which  it  is  subjected,  and  the  physical 
character  of  the  grain,  enters  into  the  making  of  flour,  the 
remainder  forming  the  by-products.  The  principal  by-prod- 
ucts of  the  milling  of  wheat  are  bran,  shorts,  and  middlings. 
Sometimes  the  lowest  grade  flour,  called  red  dog,  is  considered  a 
by-product  and  is  used  for  feeding  live  stock.  The  bran  is  the 
outside  covering  of  the  kernel,  together  with  the  aleurone  layer, 
and  a  small  amount  of  adherent  portions  of  the  endosperm  not 
removed  in  the  milling  process.  In  the  milling  of  wheat  some  of 
the  bran  is  reduced  to  rather  fine  particles,  and  this,  when  sepa- 
rated from  the  coarser  bran,  is  known  as  shorts.  The  middlings 
contain  a  greater  proportion  of  endosperm  and  usually  more  of 
the  germ  than  do  the  bran  and  shorts.  The  germ  or  embryo, 
containing  a  high  percentage  of  fat  and  being  comparatively  high 
in  protein,  does  not  enter  into  the  making  of  flour,  since  it  injures 


WHEAT 


119 


the  keeping  quality  of  the  latter,  but  is  removed  during  milling 
and  may  be  added  to  any  one  of  the  above  feeds.  The  by-prod- 
ucts are  excellent  feed  for  live  stock  and  command  for  this 
purpose  a  high  price  upon  the  market.  Their  relative  com- 
position may  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 


CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

PROTEIN 

FATS 

Entire  grain     

737 

122 

1  7 

Bran 

53  9 

15  4 

4  0 

Shorts     

568 

149 

4  5 

Middlings    
Red  dog 

60.4 
562 

12.1 
19  9 

4.0 

6  2 

PRODUCTION   AND   DISTRIBUTION 

105.  The  world's  production.  —  For  the  five  years 
1908-12,  the  world's  wheat  crop  has  been  approximately 
3500  million  bushels.  Of  this  amount,  Europe  produced 
over  1800  million  bushels,  or  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
world's  crop.  North  America  ranks  second,  with  a  yield 
of  822  million  bushels,  a  little  less  than  one-fourth  of  the 
world's  crop.  The  other  continents  contributed  as  fol- 
lows:  Asia,  480  million  bushels,  South  America,  185 
million  bushels,  Australia,  85  million  bushels,  and  Africa, 
75  million  bushels.  Of  the  European  countries,  Russia 
is  the  leading  wheat-producing  country,  producing  an 
average  annual  yield,  during  the  above  five  years,  of  594 
million  bushels.  Austria-Hungary  ranks  second,  with 
233  million  bushels,  France  third,  with  316  million  bushels, 
Italy  and  Germany  each  produce  170  million  bushels,  and 
Spain  130  million  bushels.  Of  the  other  European  coun- 
tries, Roumania  and  the  United  Kingdom  alone  produced 
comparatively  large  amounts.  In  North  America,  the 


120 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


United  States  produces  643  million  bushels,  or  almost 
80  per  cent  of  the  total  crop,  Canada  168  million  bushels, 
and  Mexico  11  million  bushels.  The  United  States,  for 
the  five  years  1908-12,  was  the  world's  largest  wheat- 
producing  country,  while  Russia  was  a  close  second.  In 
South  America  Argentina  produces  over  90  per  cent  of 
the  total  wheat  crop  of  that  continent.  In  Asia,  British 

India  produced  320  of 
the  480  million  bushels 
produced  by  that  con- 
tinent. In  Africa,  al- 
most all  the  wheat  is 
grown  in  Egypt  and 
Algeria. 

106.  Production  in 
the  United  States.  — 
About  one-half  of  the 
wheat  crop  of  the 
United  States  is  pro- 
duced in  the  North 
Central  States,  west 

FIG.  41.  —  Wheat  crops  of  the  leading  conn-       f     ,.        ^r. 

tries  of  the  world.  of     the    Mississippi 

River,  including  Min- 
nesota, Iowa,  Missouri,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
and  Kansas.  About  one-sixth  of  the  crop  of  this  country 
is  produced  in  the  North  Central  States  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, including  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and 
Wisconsin.  The  far  West  produces  about  one-sixth  of  our 
crop,  while  all  of  the  rest  of  the  states  taken  together  pro- 
duce only  about  100  million  bushels.  For  the  five  years 
1908-12,  North  Dakota  was  the  leading  wheat-producing 
state,  with  an  average  annual  yield  of  90  million  bushels. 
Other  states  producing  large  amounts  were  Kansas,  70 


WHEAT  121 

million  bushels,  Minnesota,  56  million  bushels,  Nebraska, 
45  million  bushels,  and  Washington,  44  million  bushels. 
About  one-half  of  the  wheat  produced  in  the  United  States 
is  spring  wheat. 

107.  Yield  per  acre.  —  The   average  annual  yield  per 
acre  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  for  the  ten  years  1903-12 
was    14.1   bushels.     During  the   same   time,    Germany's 
acre  yield  was  30.1  bushels,  England's,  32,  that  of  France, 
21,  and  Russia's,  9.7  bushels.     It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  two  largest  wheat-producing  countries  of  the  world 
obtain  the  lowest  acre  yield,  and  it  is  interesting  also  to 
speculate  as  to  how  long  it  will  be,  if  the  time  ever  does 
come,  before  these  two  countries,  with  their  extensive  acre- 
age, will  be  able  to  bring  their  yield  per  acre  up  to  Ger- 
many's present  standard.     At  the  present  time  the  yearly 
world's  production  is  none  too  great  for  the  needs  of  its 
bread-eating  nations,   and  yet  the  population  of  these 
nations  is  increasing  steadily.     Since  almost  all  of  the 
available  wheat  lands  of  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  countries,  are  now  under  cultivation,  it  would  seem  that 
the  only  means  by  which  this  increased  population  may  be 
supplied  with  bread  'is  in  making  our  present  wheat  fields 
produce  more  abundantly. 

108.  The  world's  supply  and  demand.  —  The  success 
or  failure  of  the  wheat  crop  has  a  more  powerful  influence 
upon  the  world  at  large  than  has  the  success  or  failure  of 
any  other  field  crop.     From  the  time  the  farmer  sows  the 
seed  until  the  crop  is  received  by  the  miller,  the  bread- 
eating  world  anxiously  watches  the  crop,  receiving  with 
thanksgiving  news  of  a  bountiful  harvest.     Unfavorable 
conditions  of  weather  for  its  growth  or  harvest  in  any 
considerable  area  at  once  becomes  news  of  international 
interest.     The  reason  for  this  unusual  interest  held  by  the 


122  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

bread-eating  nations  is  not  far  to  seek.  Wheat  is  an  inter- 
national crop,  the  price  of  which  is  fixed  by  the  supply 
upon  the  world's  markets.  The  price  of  the  grain  in 
countries  having  a  surplus  is  dependent  upon  the  com- 
petitive offers  from  importing  nations.  The  United  King- 
dom, being  the  largest  importer  of  wheat,  fixes,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  price  of  that  crop  in  all  wheat-producing  and 
exporting  countries.  The  United  Kingdom  imports 
annually  about  180  million  bushels.  German}^  demands 
85  millions,  Belgium,  70  millions,  The  Netherlands,  50 
millions,  and  smaller  amounts  enter  the  ports  of  Italy, 
France,  Switzerland,  Sweden,  Greece,  Denmark,  and 
other  countries. 

In  all  about  550  million  bushels,  almost  as  much  as  is 
produced  in  the  United  States,  annually  enter  into  inter- 
national trade.  The  principal  countries  supplying  this 
demand,  with  their  average  annual  exportation  for  the 
five  years  1907-11,  are  Russia,  140  million,  Argentina,  95 
million,  the  United  States,  55  million,  Canada,  50  million, 
Roumania,  40  million,  India  and  Australia,  35  million 
each,  and  Belgium,  20  million  bushels.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  United  States  is  a  wheat-exporting  country,  but 
statistics  show  that  her  annual  exportations  are  becoming 
less  each  year.  Considering  the  present  rate  of  increase  in 
population,  it  is  interesting  to  speculate  upon  the  length 
of  time  that  will  elapse  before  the  United  States  becomes 
a  wheat-importing  nation.  It  is  interesting  also  to  note 
that  the  exports  of  Argentina,  which  produces  but  one- 
fourth  as  much  as  the  United  States,  are  almost  twice  as 
great  as  the  exports  of  this  country.  Argentina  has  great 
possibilities  as  a  wheat-producing  country,  and  undoubt- 
edly will  in  the  future  have  an  important  part  in  feeding  the 
world. 


WHEAT  123 

109.  Wheat   districts   of   the   United    States.  —  When 
one  glances  over  the  market  report  from  one  of  the  large 
markets,  it  will  be  noticed  that  prices  are  quoted  for  several 
kinds  of  wheat.     Thus  quotations  will  be  found  on  hard 
winter,  red-winter,  hard-spring,  and  the  like.     In  order  to 
understand  the  report,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something 
of  the  nature  of  the  several  kinds  of  wheat,  the  sections 
of  the  country  in  which  they  are  grown,  and  their  uses. 
In  studying  this  interesting  subject  it  will  be  found  that 
wheat  grown  in  one  section  of  the  country  may  be  very 
different  from  that  grown  in  another  section.     Based  upon 
the  character  of  the  wheat  produced,  the  United  States 
may  be  divided  into  five  districts  somewhat  overlapping, 
each  producing  a  wheat  differing  in  several  respects  from 
that  produced  in  other  sections.     A  brief  discussion  of  the 
several  districts  and  the  character  of  the  wheat  grown  in 
them  will  not  only  be  interesting,  but  will  be  helpful  in 
enabling  one  to  understand  the  market  classifications. 

110.  Semi-hard  wheat  district.  —  This  district  includes 
all  of  the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  with  the 
exception  of  northern  Wisconsin.     It  also  includes  almost 
all  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas  and  eastern  Texas.     The 
wheat  grown  in  this  section  of  the  country  has  a  medium 
hard,  rather  starchy  kernel.     The  color  may  be  either  red, 
amber,  or  white,  red  being  the  most  common.     Almost  all 
of  the  wheat  of  this  section  is  winter  wheat.     In  the  ex- 
treme northeastern  part  a  small  amount  of  spring  wheat  is 
grown,  but  it  is  used  locally,  very  little,  if  any,  finding  its 
way  to  the  large  markets.     The  spring  wheat  of  these 
states  is  quite  similar  in  character  to  the  winter  wheat  of 
the  remainder  of  the  section.     The  wheat  of  the  north- 
western part  of  this  section  is  slightly  harder  than  that 
produced  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States,     Wheat 


124  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

which  finds  its  way  to  the  markets  from  the  semi-hard 
wheat  districts  is  classed  on  the  market  as  "  red  winter  " 
wheat.  Most  of  the  red-winter  wheat  that  appears  on 
the  market  is  produced  in  the  North  Central  States.  In 
the  Eastern  and  Southern  States  wheat  is  grown  only  in 
small  amounts  and  is  used  locally.  When,  therefore,  the 
market  report  speaks  of  "  red-winter '"  wheat,  it  refers  to 
that  grown  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Missouri, 
Michigan,  southern  Wisconsin,  and  Pennsylvania.  The 
most  important  varieties  of  semi-hard  wheats  are  Poole, 
Gypsy,  Mediterranean,  Fultz,  and  Fulcaster. 

111.  Hard-winter  district.  —  This  district  includes 
chiefly  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  southern  Nebraska,  southern 
Iowa,  and  northern  Missouri,  although  Montana,  Idaho, 
Utah,  and  Oregon  are  producing  large  quantities.  The 
boundaries  of  this  district,  especially  the  eastern  boundary, 
are  subject  to  change  from  year  to  year,  due  to  seasonal 
variations,  which  influence  the  quality  of  the  wheat. 
Thus  southern  Iowa  wheat  may  sometimes  be  classed  as 
"  hard-winter,"  and  at  other  times  "  red-winter."  The 
wheat  produced  in  this  section  has  hard,  narrow,  medium- 
sized  grains.  It  has  excellent  bread-making  qualities, 
being  considered  superior  for  this  purpose  to  the  semi-hard 
wheats.  The  chief  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the 
wheats  of  these  two  sections  is  in  the  hardness  and  shape 
of  the  grain.  The  kernel  of  the  hard-winter  is  much 
harder,  containing  very  little  white  starch,  and  it  is  some- 
what longer  and  narrower  than  the  grains  of  the  semi- 
hard  or  red-winter  wheats.  Wheat  grown  in  this  section 
is  classed  as  "  hard-winter  "  wheat  on  the  market.  The 
most  important  varieties  of  hard-winter  wheat  are  Turkey 
and  Karkov,  the  former  of  which  was  introduced  from 
Russia  some  thirty  years  ago. 


WHEAT  125 

112.  Hard-spring   wheat    district.  —  This    section    in- 
cludes  Minnesota,  North    and  South  Dakota,  northern 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska,  and  parts  of  Montana  and 
Colorado    and    Canada.     The    wheat    produced   in   this 
section  is  sown  in  the  spring  and  has  rather  small,  short, 
hard  grains.     It  is  the  most  highly  prized  for  bread-making 
of  any  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States.     This  section 
produces  over  30  per  cent  of  the  total  crop  of  the  United 
States  and  is  the  center  of  the  milling  district.     The  wheat 
of  this  section  differs  from  that  of  the  hard  winter  district 
in  that  it  is  spring  sown,  the  kernels  are  harder,  somewhat 
shorter,  and  it  makes  a  slightly  better  quality  of  bread 
flour.     There  are  two  important  varieties  of  hard  spring 
wheats,  namely,  —  the  fife  and  blue-stem,  while  a  third, 
the  bearded  fife,  or  so-called  "  velvet  chaff,"  is  also  com- 
monly grown. 

113.  Soft  wheat  district.  —  This  district  in  a  general 
way  includes  the  states  west  of  the  hard  winter  and  hard 
spring  districts.     The  wheat  of  this  section  is  both  fall 
and  spring  sown,  and  the  kernels  may  be  either  red  or 
white  in  color.     The  largest  part  of  the  crop  of  this  section 
is  spring  sown,  and  produces  white  kernels.     California, 
Washington,  and  Oregon  produce  most  of  the  wheat  grown 
in  this  section.     Scattered  portions  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain States  produce  small  amounts  by  means  of  irrigation. 
The  wheat  of  this  section  is  characterized  by  a  soft,  plump, 
starchy  red  or  white  kernel.     The  district  is  sometimes 
called  the  white  wheat  district,  because  most  of  the  wheat 
has  white,  starchy  kernels.     The  wheats  of  this  section  are 
not  well  adapted  to  the  making  of  bread  flour,  and  are  used 
largely  for  export  to  the  Orient,  and  in  the  making  of 
pastry  flour.     Much  of  the  wheat  produced  in  this  section 
is  the  Triticum  sativum  compactum,  or  club  wheat,  a  most 


126  FIELD    CROP  PRODUCTION 

important  variety  of  which  is  Little  Club,  known  also  as 
California  Club,  Washington  Club,  Walla  Walla  Club, 
Silver  Club,  and  the  like.  Other  varieties  commonly 
grown  are  Oregon  Red-chaff,  Dale's  Glory,  and  Crook- 
neck  Club.  The  leading  common  wheats  in  the  soft 
wheat  district  of  the  West  are  White  Australian,  a  beard- 
less variety  largely  grown  in  California,  Sonora,  a  beard- 
less brown-chaff  variety  grown  in  California  and  Oregon, 
and  Palouse  Bluestem,  a  semi-hard  spring  variety,  closely 
related  to  fife  wheat,  and  grown  in  Washington  and 
Oregon.  Some  few  varieties,  the  most  common  of  which 
are  Dawson's  Golden  Chaff  and  Gold  Coin,  grown  in  Ohio, 
New  York,  and  adjacent  states,  grade  on  the  market  as 
soft  wheats. 

114.  Durum  wheat  district.  —  Durum  wheat  is  grown 
principally  in  the  east  and  central  parts  of  the  Dakotas, 
in  Colorado,  Montana,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  in  smaller 
areas  in  adjacent  states.  This  section,  therefore,  overlaps 
both  that  of  the  hard  winter  and  the  hard  spring  districts. 
Durum  wheat  is  grown  largely  in  sections  of  these  states 
where  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  the  growing  of 
hard  winter  or  hard  spring  wheat.  It  will  grow  in  more 
arid  sections  and  with  less  rainfall  than  will  produce  a 
profitable  crop  of  either  of  the  other  sorts.  Usually  when 
either  hard  winter  or  hard  spring  varieties  can  be  grown 
with  profit,  they  are  preferred  to  durum.  The  important 
varieties  of  durum  wheat  are  Kubanka  and  Arnantka. 
For  some  years  after  its  introduction  durum  wheat  sold  at  a 
discount  ranging  from  25  to  15  cents  per  bushel  below  com- 
mon hard  wheat.  This  prejudice  has  gradually  decreased, 
however,  and  during  the  past  year  durum  wheat  has  sold 
at  a  premium  over  equal  grades  of  hard  spring  common 
wheat. 


WHEAT  127 


ADAPTATION 

115.  Climatic  adaptation.  —  The  wheat  plant  has  a  wide 
climatic  adaptation  which  in  no  little  measure  is  responsi- 
ble for  its  world- wide  importance.  If  it  were  a  plant 
adapted  only  to  certain  restricted  climates,  it  never  could 
have  gained  the  place  of  preeminence  which  it  now  holds 
among  the  nations  of  the  world.  In  a  general  way,  how- 
ever, the  world's  wheat  crop  is  grown  in  regions  of  cold 
winters.  Exceptions  to  this  are  to  be  found  in  India  and 
Egypt  and  in  California.  Wheat,  for  its  best  develop- 
ment, requires  that  the  plants  make  their  early  growth 
during  the  cool  part  of  the  growing  season.  This  is  true 
for  both  fall  and  spring  varieties.  If  planted  in  the  season 
of  the  year  when  early  growth  is  made  during  hot  weather, 
little  stooling  results  and  low  yields  are  secured.  While 
wheat  has  a  wide  climatic  range,  climate  has  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  quality  of  it.  The  division  of  the 
United  States  into  wheat  districts,  which  has  just  been 
discussed,  has  been  due  largely  to  the  influence  of  climate 
in  the  various  sections  of  the  country  upon  the  physical 
character  of  the  grain.  Wheat  of  the  best  quality  is  pro- 
duced in  sections  having  a  cool  and  rather  wet  growing 
season  during  the  early  life  of  the  plant,  followed  by  rather 
hot,  dry,  sunshiny  weather  during  the  ripening  period. 
When  these  conditions  prevail,  the  largest  yields  are  se- 
cured and  the  grain  is  of  the  best  quality.  Under  these 
conditions  of  growth  the  kernels  are  rather  hard  and 
flinty  and  contain  a  relatively  high  percentage  of  protein 
and  low  percentage  of  starch.  In  sections  where  rainfall 
is  plentiful  and  damp  weather  prevails  during  the  ripening 
period,  the  kernels  are  soft  and  starchy,  containing  a 
relatively  high  percentage  of  starch  and  low  percentage  of 


128  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

protein.  This  difference  in  the  physical  character  of  the 
kernel  is  due,  in  part,  to  the  fact  that  if  favorable  growing 
weather  prevails  during  the  ripening  period,  the  plant 
continues  its  growth  until  the  starch  cells  of  the  kernels 
are  completely  filled,  which  gives  to  the  kernel  a  light 
color  and  a  soft,  starchy  endosperm.  If,  however,  hot, 
dry  weather  prevails  during  the  ripening  period,  the  plant 
ripens  prematurely,  and  before  all  of  the  starch  cells  of  the 
kernel  have  been  filled  by  the  transfer  of  starch  from  the 
leaves  and  stem  to  the  kernel.  The  starch  cells,  therefore, 
not  being  completely  filled,  give  to  the  kernels  a  hard  and 
flinty  texture  and  a  rather  dark  color.  In  the  Pacific 
Coast  States,  where  soft  wheats  are  produced,  rather 
little  rain  falls  during  the  growing  season,  but  it  falls  in 
abundance  during  the  winter,  and  since  the  soils  of  this 
section  have  great  water-holding  capacity,  the  plant  is  well 
supplied  with  moisture  during  its  full  period  of  growth. 
Some  of  the  difference  in  the  physical  characters  between 
hard  and  soft  wheats  may  perhaps  be  due  in  part  to  a 
difference  in  the  size  of  the  starch  cells,  as  revealed  by 
microscopic  examination,  those  of  the  soft  wheats  being 
the  larger. 

116.  Adaptation  to  soil.  —  In  addition  to  its  adaptation 
to  climate,  wheat  will  grow  well  under  greatly  varying 
soil  conditions.  The  soil,  unlike  climate,  has  no  notice- 
able effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  grain,  but  it  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  when  the  yield  is  considered.  Like 
almost  all  crops,  wheat  yields  the  best  on  fertile  soils, 
although  good  yields  may  be  secured  on  rather  poor  types 
of  soils  if  proper  fertilization  and  cultural  methods  are 
employed  in  growing  it.  As  a  general  thing,  wheat  is 
better  adapted  to  the  so-called  "  grass  lands  "  or  clay 
loam  soils,  than  to  the  more  fertile  "  corn  soils  "  that  are 


WHEAT  129 

abundantly  supplied  with  organic  matter.  Winter  killing 
is  less  likely  to  occur  on  clay  than  on  loamy  soils,  and 
comparatively  better  yields  of  wheat  are  secured  on  this 
type  than  are  obtained  from  corn  soils. 

METHODS   OF   CULTURE 

117.  Place  in  the  rotation.  —  In  the  corn  belt  states 
where  both  corn  and  oats  are  grown  in  the  rotation,  the 
usual  sequence  is  corn,  oats,  wheat,  hay.     When  wheat, 
is  the  only  grain  crop  in  rotation,  the  wheat  follows  corn, 
and  it  is  in  turn  followed  by  hay.     While  a  corn,  wheat, 
and  oat  rotation  is  usually  a  three-year  rotation,  it  may, 
by  cutting  hay  from  the  field  for  two  years,  be  extended 
to  four  years.     In  parts  of  the  Great  Plains  area,  wheat  is 
grown   in   continuous   culture,    largely   because   farming 
operations  are  so  extensive  that  a  rotation  cannot  well  be 
practiced.     As  the  population  increases,  the  size  of  farms 
will  decrease  and  after  a  few  years,  perhaps,  a  well-defined 
rotation  will  have  become  the  usual  practice  there. 

118.  Preparing  the  seed  bed.  —  The  method  of  pre- 
paring the  seed  bed  for  wheat,  of  course,  will  be  influenced 
by  the  rotation  practiced  and  whether  it  is  seeded  in  the 
fall  or   spring.     In   the  winter  wheat   sections,  when   a 
four-year  rotation  is  followed,  the  oat  stubble  land  must 
be   prepared    for   wheat.     The    most    common   method, 
perhaps,  is  that  of  plowing  the  land  a  few  weeks  before 
the  time  of  seeding.     In  recent  years  the  disking  of  the 
land  instead  of  plowing  has  become  a  common  practice. 
Whether  plowing  or  disking  is  the  method  employed,  an 
important  factor,  probably  the  most  important  factor  in 
many  cases,  is  the  handling  of  the  soil  in  such  a  way  as  to 
retain  as  much  of  the  season's  rainfall  stored  in  the  soil  as 
possible.     Moisture  is  often  a  factor  which  determines 


130 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


whether  or  not  the  plants  will  make  a  successful  growth 
before  winter.  The  handling  of  the  soil  in  such  a  way 
as  to  retain  moisture  and  to  permit  its  rise  from  the  sub- 
soil by  capillarity  is  of  even  more  importance  in  preparing 


FIG.  42.  —  Cross  section  of  a  poorly  and  of  a  well  prepared  seed  bed. 

the  land  for  fall  wheat  than  for  corn.  Corn  is  planted  in 
the  spring  when  showers  are  frequent,  and  usually  rain  falls 
in  sufficient  quantity  within  a  few  days  of  the  planting  to 
supply  the  needed  water  for  early  germination,  while  at 
wheat-planting  time  rain  falls  rather  infrequently  in  many 
sections,  and  unless  the  soil  is  prepared  so  as  to  permit  the 


WHEAT  131 

water  to  come  up  from  the  subsoil  to  supply  water  neces- 
sary for  germination,  the  latter  may  be  delayed  for  several 
weeks.  In  preparing  the  soil  for  wheat,  the  same  general 
principles  will  be  involved  as  were  discussed  in  the  cor- 
responding part  of  the  chapter  on  corn.  Oat  stubble 
should  be  plowed  or  disked  as  soon  as  the  oats  can  be 
removed  from  the  field,  and  the  land  further  prepared  by 
frequent  harrowing  so  as  to  prevent  rapid  loss  of  moisture 
until  the  seed  is  planted.  Sometimes  it  is  advisable  and 
entirely  practical  to  disk  the  land  before  plowing  it. 
This  renders  the  further  preparation  less  difficult  and  often 
saves  much  time  as  compared  with  plowing  only.  In  the 
three-year  rotation,  wheat  most  often  follows  corn. 
Usually  corn  land  cannot  be  given  much  preparation  before 
seeding  the  wheat,  since  the  corn  remains  on  the  field 
until,  or  even  after,  the  wheat  is  sown.  However,  much 
can  be  done  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  for  wheat,  both  in 
pulverizing  the  soil  and  keeping  it  free  from  weeds  by 
careful  cultivation  of  the  corn  crop.  Sometimes  a  light 
drag  may  well  be  run  ahead  of  the  drill  to  loosen  up  the 
soil.  This  practice  is  often  followed  when  the  wheat  is 
drilled  in  the  standing  corn.  If  an  early  variety  of  corn  is 
grown,  it  may  usually  be  put  into  the  shock  before  wheat 
seeding,  in  which  case  a  disk  or  cultivator  may  be  em- 
ployed to  prepare  the  ground  for  sowing.  For  spring 
wheat  the  land  may  be  either  plowed  in  the  fall  or  early  in 
the  spring.  The  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  from  fall  or 
spring  plowed  land  does  not  differ  from  the  practices 
already  described. 

119.  Preparation  of  wheat  for  seeding.  —  Wheat  to  be 
used  for  seeding  should  be  run  through  the  fanning  mill  to 
remove  the  weed  seeds,  dirt,  chaff,  and  damaged  kernels. 
After  the  wheat  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned  by  the  use  of 


132  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  fanning  mill,  it  is  usually  profitable  to  treat  it  for  the 
prevention  of  stinking  smut,  a  fungous  disease  that  does 
considerable  damage  and  sometimes  destroys  as  much  as 
10  per  cent  of  the  crop.  This  fungus  will  be  described 
elsewhere  in  the  chapter,  and  only  the  method  of  treating 
the  seed  for  its  control  will  be  discussed  here.  The  fungus 
spores  of  the  stinking  smut  of  wheat  and  of  the  loose  smut 
of  oats  may  be  killed  by  treating  the  seed  grain  in  the 
following  way :  Take  a  pound  of  formalin  (formaldehyde, 
40  per  cent),  dissolve  it  in  50  gallons  of  water,  spread  the 
grain  out  on  the  clean  floor,  and  wet  it  thoroughly  with  the 
solution,  using  about  three  quarts  to  a  gallon  for  each 
bushel  of  the  grain.  The  work  can  be  done  easily  and 
thoroughly  if  one  person  shovels  the  wheat  over  while 
another  applies  the  solution  with  the  sprinkling  can,  then 
stack  the  grain  up  in  a  pile  or  in  a  long  rick,  and  cover  over 
with  carpets  and  blankets  to  retain  the  fumes  from  the 
formalin,  and  allow  to  remain  for  two  or  three  hours,  or 
even  over  night.  Then  spread  the  grain  out  to  dry  before 
seeding.  It  should  not  be  returned  to  the  same  bags 
unless  they  have  been  treated  with  the  solution,  as  they 
may  contain  spores  that  will  again  infect  the  grain.  The 
drill  box  also  should  be  sprayed  with  the  solution. 

120.  Time  and  rate  of  seeding.  —  The  time  of  seeding 
wheat,  of  course,  varies  with  the  locality.  In  the  winter- 
wheat  districts  the  seeding  is  done  early  enough  in  the  fall 
to  permit  the  plants  to  become  well  established  before 
winter.  In  the  red-winter  wheat  section  almost  all  of  the 
wheat  is  seeded  during  September ;  in  the  northern  portion 
the  seeding  is  done  during  the  early  part  of  the  month, 
while  in  the  southern  portion  it  is  usually  delayed  until  the 
last  of  September  or  even  until  October.  In  the  South- 
ern States  it  may  be  seeded  even  later  than  that.  If 


WHEAT  133 

seeded  too  early,  too  much  growth  is  made  before  cold 
weather,  and  many  of  the  plants  are  likely  to  be  winter- 
killed ;  but  if  delayed  too  long,  sufficient  growth  cannot  be 
made  to  enable  the  plants  to  withstand  the  winter.  The 
practice  of  the  best  farmers  of  any  section  may  usually  be 
used  as  a  guide  for  the  proper  time  of  seeding.  Spring 
wheat  usually  does  better  if  the  seeding  is  done  early, 
since  the  plants  make  their  best  growth  during  the  cool 
weather  of  spring.  Early  seeding  also  avoids  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  the  attacks  of  insects  and  permits  the 
crop  to  ripen  and  be  harvested  before  the  more  severe 
storms  of  late  summer. 

121.  Method  and  depth  of  seeding.  —  Almost  all  of  the 
wheat  in  the  United  States  is  now  seeded  with  a  grain 
drill,  in  some  few  places,  however,  broadcasting  being 
still  practiced.     Seeding  with  the  grain  drill  is  to  be  rec- 
ommended in   almost  all   cases.     The   depth  of   seeding 
depends  to  some  extent  upon  the  condition  of  the  seed 
bed.     In  a  well-prepared  bed  the  seed  should  not  be  put 
down  deeply  into  the  ground,  usually  one  to  two  inches 
being  a  sufficient  depth.     Some  farmers  plant  the  seed 
deeply,  in  order,  as  they  believe,  to  insure  a  deep  root 
system   and    prevent    winter  killing.     Deep   seeding,   of 
course,  does  not  insure  a  deep  root  system,  as  has  pre- 
viously been  explained.     It  is  necessary  in  a  poorly  pre- 
pared seed  bed  to  put  the  seed  down  somewhat  deeper  in 
order  to  place  it  where  it  can  get  sufficient  moisture  to 
germinate  and  also  in  order  that  there  may  be  enough 
loose  soil  to  cover  it. 

122.  Cultivation    of    wheat.  —  Wheat    is    not    usually 
cultivated  after  seeding,   but  some  growers  follow  the 
practice  of  harrowing  fall-sown  wheat  in  the  spring.     This 
breaks  up  the  surface  crust  and  prevents  the  evaporation  of 


134 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


moisture.  Experiment  station  tests  of  this  practice  seem 
to  indicate  that  harrowing  wheat  is  profitable  if  the  season 
is  a  dry  one,  this  practice  sometimes  increasing  the  yield 
as  much  as  6  or  7  bushels  per  acre.  In  these  experiments, 
harrowing  was  not  found  to  decrease  the  yield  during  any 
season.  Rolling  the  wheat  in  the  spring  has  also  given 
good  results,  in  some  cases  better  than  harrowing. 

HARVESTING   AND    STORING 

123.    Harvesting.  —  In  some  part  of  the  world,  wheat  is 
being  harvested  during  each  month  in  the  year.     In  the 


FIG.  43.  —  Harvesting  wheat  with  a  grain  binder. 

southern  part  of  the  United  States  wheat  harvest  begins  in 
May,  and  as  the  season  advances  progresses  northward, 
the  more  northerly  fields  being  cut  in  August.  Almost  all 
of  the  wheat  crop  in  this  country  is  harvested  as  soon  as 
it  is  ripe.  However,  in  certain  sections  of  the  wheat 
growing  districts  along  the  Pacific  Coast  it  is  allowed  to 


WHEAT  135 

stand  in  the  field  for  several  weeks  before  harvesting. 
In  the  corn  belt  states  the  harvesting  must  be  done  as 
soon  as  the  crop  is  ripe,  or  much  will  be  lost  from  shatter- 
ing. Sometimes  it  is  advisable  even  to  cut  it  before  it  is 
fully  matured  in  order  to  prevent  loss  from  shattering. 
Wheat  may  be  cut  without  loss  in  yield  or  injury  to  the 
quality  after  the  straw  has  turned  yellow  and  the  grain 
is  in  the  hard  dough  stage.  When  cut  at  this  time,  the 
bundles  should  be  promptly  set  up  in  shocks,  or  else  the 
hot  sun  will  stop  the  transfer  of  starch  from  the  leaves 


FIG.  44.  —  A  combination  harvester  and  thrasher  at  work  in  the  far  West. 

and  stem  to  the  grain.  Prompt  shocking  is  desirable  also 
to  prevent  bleaching  and  injury  from  rain  and  dew  and 
usually  it  should  be  done  if  possible  the  same  day  the  wheat 
is  cut.  Wheat  shocks  usually  are  made  somewhat  larger 
than  those  of  oats,  since  the  grain  and  straw  dry  out  more 
rapidly.  Usually  twelve  bundles  are  set  together  to  form 
a  shock.  Thrashing  may  be  done  directly  from  the  field 
or  the  bundles  may  be  stacked  or  stored  in  the  barn  for 
later  thrashing.  On  the  large  wheat  farms  of  the  Western 
States  a  combination  harvester  and  thrasher  is  employed. 
This  outfit  represents  a  considerable  investment  of  capital 
and  also  requires  considerable  motive  power,  usually 


136  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

28  mules  or  a  tractor  engine  being  required.  It  can  be 
used  with  profit  only  when  extensive  acreages  are  grown 
in  one  field. 

124.  Storing  of  wheat.  —  Thrashed  grain  may  be  stored 
safely  in  any  tight  bin  or  granary.  Owing  to  the  dry 
weather  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  thrashed  grain  is 
frequently  allowed  to  remain  in  the  field  until  marketed, 
or  even  after  marketing  it  may  be  stored  by  piling  the 


FIG.  45.  —  Thrashing  wheat  in  the  Northwest. 

bags  in  great  heaps  out  in  the  open.  The  moisture  con- 
tent of  thrashed  grains  varies  with  the  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere.  When  wheat  is  shipped  from  a  dry  to  humid 
climate,  frequently  the  increase  in  weight  is  enough  to 
pay  for  the  transportation. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF  WHEAT 

125.  Opportunities  for  improvement.  —  With  the  acre 
yield  of  wheat  less  than  15  bushels  in  great  agricultural 
countries  like  the  United  States  and  Canada,  it  would 
seem  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  opportunity  for  in- 


WHEAT  137 

creasing  our  production.  Much  that  has  been  said  and 
done  about  this  important  problem  has  been  along  the 
line  of  soil  improvement,  and  comparatively  little  has  been 
done  in  the  way  of  improving  the  plant  itself.  The  im- 
portance of  the  problem  is  so  far-reaching  that  it  would 
seem  advisable  to  employ  both  methods  in  order  to  bring 
about  a  larger  production.  Much  is  possible  along  the 
line  of  plant  improvement,  and  every  wheat  grower  should 
be  content  only  after  he  is  satisfied  that  further  improve- 
ment is  impossible. 

126.  The  variety  test.  —  No  one  best  method  for  the 
improvement  of  the  small  grain  crops  has  yet  been  ad- 
vanced. There  still  remain  great  opportunities  for  im- 
provement in  methods  and  the  extending  of  their  prac- 
tices. From  our  present  knowledge  of  crop  improvement, 
the  first  step  in  this  direction  is  the  variety  test.  The 
variety  test  is  so  easily  conducted  that  no  wheat  grower 
should  long  be  in  doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  he  can  increase 
his  production  by  securing  seed  of  a  different  variety  from 
that  which  he  is  now  growing.  Frequently  an  increase  of 
several  bushels  per  acre  may  be  secured  by  the  growing  of 
a  better  adapted  variety.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  variety 
test  to  determine  which  variety  or  strain  is  best  adapted 
to  a  given  soil  for  a  series  of  years.  The  variety  test  may 
be  conducted  with  few  or  with  several  varieties.  Any 
farmer  can  conduct  a  test  with  a  few  of  the  most  promi- 
nent varieties  without  great  inconvenience.  The  variety 
test  consists  in  growing  several  varieties  side  by  side  under 
uniform  conditions  of  soil  and  culture.  The  farmer  may 
find  it  convenient  to  seed  one  or  two  rounds  of  each  variety 
with  the  drill,  comparing  the  yield  and  the  quality  of  the 
crop  at  harvest  time.  More  accurate  results  are  secured 
if  one  variety  is  used  as  a  check,  as  was  explained  in  the 


138 


FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 


WHEAT 


139 


paragraph  on  the  improvement  of  corn.  More  careful 
experimenters  will  desire  to  measure  off  accurately  a 
fraction  of  an  acre  for  each  variety.  The  test  is  most 
valuable  when  it  has  been  carried  on  for  several  years  on 
the  same  farm,  since 
the  influence  of  sea- 
sonal conditions  may 
be  more  accurately  de- 
termined. 

127.  The  head-row 
test. — When  the  best 
variety  has  been  se- 
lected, still  further 
opportunity  for  im- 
provement is  to  be 
found  in  the  selection 
of  the  highest  yield- 
ing plants  in  this  va- 
riety.  Individual 
plants  like  ears  of 
corn  vary  markedly  in 
their  ability  to  yield. 
If,  therefore,  the  high- 
yielding  plants  can  be 
found  and  used  for  per- 
petuation, great  oppor- 
tunities for  increasing 
the  yield  are  possible. 
The  method  of  making  this  selection  is  known  as  the  head- 
row  test.  This  test  consists  in  going  into  the  field  at 
harvest  time  and  selecting  under  normal  conditions  of 
growth  a  number  of  the  most  promising  individuals. 
From  25  to  1000  heads,  representing  as  many  plants,  may 


FIG.  47.  —  Head-row  test  at  the  Ohio  Sta- 
tion showing  variation  in  erectness  of  heads. 


140 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


be  selected.  Their  ability  to  yield  is  then  determined  by 
planting  a  short  row,  usually  about  four  feet  long,  from 
each  head  the  next  season.  A  check  system  should  be 

used  to  secure  a  reli- 
able test,  and  a  com- 
posite sample  from  the 
general  seed  may  be 
used  for  planting  the 
check  rows,  usually 
every  tenth  row  being 
planted  as  a  check. 
At  harvest  time 
each  row  is  carefully 
studied,  special  notice 
being  given  to  winter 
killing,  stiffness  of 
straw,  time  of  ripening, 
and  other  qualities. 
If  each  row  is  har- 
vested and  thrashed 
separately,  compara- 
tive yields  may  be 
secured.  The  grain 
from  the  most  prom- 
ising rows  is  used  to 
plant  a  larger  crop  the 
next  season,  which 

FIG.  48.  —  Head-row  test  showing  vari-     will    give   another  Op- 

P°rtunity  for  study 
and  selection  of  the 
most  promising  strains.  In  a  few  years  enough  seed 
will  be  secured  to  seed  a  small  field,  and  later  the  entire 
crop,  if  the  selection  proves  to  be  more  desirable  than  the 


WHEAT  141 

seed  from  the  general  crop.  This  method  of  improve- 
ment has  great  possibilities.  At  some  of  the  experiment 
stations  strains  have  been  developed  from  single  heads 
that  not  only  outyielded  the  parent  variety,  but  also  were 
superior  to  it  in  the  stiffness  of  the  straw  and  other  quali- 
ties. Wheat  improvement  by  the  head-row  method  is 
less  difficult  than  that  of  corn  by  the  ear-row  method, 
since  wheat  is  usually  self-fertilized  and  no  precautions 
are  necessary  to  prevent  intercrossing  as  must  be  taken  in 
corn  improvement. 


FIG.  49.  —  Harvesting  wheat  plots  at  Cornell  University. 

128.  Wheat  judging.  —  Samples  of  thrashed  grain 
may  be  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  its  use  as  seed  or 
for  flour  or  bread-making  qualities.  Usually  in  competi- 
tive shows  wheat  is  judged  from  the  milling  standpoint. 
Before  one  can  judge  wheat  quickly  and  accurately  from 
any  standpoint,  it  is  necessary  to  become  familiar  with 
the  points  that  are  of  importance  in  determining  the  value 
of  the  sample.  This  familiarity  can  be  gained  from  careful 
study  or  long  experience.  The  student,  necessarily,  on 


142  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

account  of  limited  time,  must  gain  his  knowledge  by  care- 
ful study.  This  study  should  be  such  as  to  enable  him 
to  quickly  see  in  a  sample  both  the  good  and  bad  points, 
and  with  both  in  view  to  arrive  at  an  accurate  decision. 
By  carefully  analyzing  several  samples,  especially  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose,  experience  will  be  gained  that  will 
enable  the  student  to  analyze  more  easily  any  sample, 
without  making  the  actual  separations. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 
129.  Fungous  Diseases.  —  Wheat  is  attacked  by  three 
important  and  several  minor  fungous  diseases.  The  most  im- 
portant are  the  smuts.  There  are  two  kinds, 'namely,  the  loose 
and  the  stinking  smuts.  The  loose  smut,  while  it  is  widely 
spread,  is  not  as  destructive  as  the  stinking  smut.  In  the  field, 
the  loose  smut  is  easily  recognized,  since  it  has  converted  the 
heads  into  black,  powdery  masses  before  they  appear  above 
the  leaf  sheath.  The  spores  are  soon  blown  away  by  the  wind 
and  only  the  naked  stem  remains  at  harvest  time.  It  may  be 
controlled  by  a  hot  water  treatment  of  the  seed,  but  this  treat- 
ment is  rather  unsatisfactory  and  is  not  generally  practiced. 

The  stinking  smut  is  not  so  readily  recognized  in  the  field,  but 
at  thrashing  time  the  presence  of  the  dusty,  ill-smelling  spores 
indicates  its  presence.  If  a  grain  of  wheat  affected  by  the  stink- 
ing smut  be  cut  open,  it  will  be  found  to  contain  no  endosperm, 
but  in  its  place  the  black,  stinking  spores.  Methods  for  its 
treatment  have  been  given  elsewhere.  (See  page  132.) 

The  rusts  of  wheat  occasionally  damage  the  crop  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  They  are  recognized  by  the  rusty  brown  and 
black  spores  that  attack  the  stem  and  leaves  of  the  plant  during 
any  stage  of  its  growth.  The  damage  done  by  rusts  depends  to  a 
considerable  extent  upon  weather  conditions.  Some  seasons  the 
damage  may  be  little,  while  in  favorable  years  for  its  growth  the 
crop  may  be  almost  entirely  ruined.  There  is  no  effective  remedy 
for  the  control  of  the  rusts. 

The  scab  attacks  the  glumes  of  the  plant,  and  is  widely  dis- 
tributed. It  seldom  causes  serious  loss,  although  occasionally 
much  shriveled  wheat  results  from  its  ravages. 


WHEAT  143 

130.  The  Insects.  —  The  Hessian  fly  is  probably  the  most 
destructive  of  the  insects  that  attack  the  wheat  plant.     It  is 
found  in   the    main  wheat-growing  regions  of  eastern  United 
States,  Canada,  and  many  other  principal  wheat-growing  coun- 
tries of  the  world.     The  adult  has  the  appearance  of  a  mosquito, 
and  the  female  lays  her  eggs  in  irregular  rows  on  the  lower  leaves 
of  the  wheat  plants  soon  after  they  are  up.     In  a  few  days  the 
eggs  hatch  and  the  small,  reddish  larvae,  which  later  turn  white, 
crawl  down  the  stem  between  the  stem  and  the  leaf  sheath,  and 
when  located  there,  cause  a  small  enlargement  on  the  plant  at 
the  point  of  attack.     In  a  few  weeks  they  reach  the  pupa  stage, 
in  which  form  they  resemble  a  flax  seed,  and  in  this  form  they 
pass  the  winter.     In  the  spring  the  adult  appears  and  lays  eggs 
for  another  brood.     The  first  indication  usually  of  the  presence 
of  the  insects  is  when  the  young  plants  turn  yellow,  and  in  later 
growth,  when  the  straw  falls.     The  most  effective  method  of 
control  is  the  delaying  of  the  seeding  of  the  wheat  for  a  week  or 
ten  days  after  the  normal  date  of  seeding,  and  usually  the  females 
will  have  come  and  gone  before  the  wheat  is  up.     A  trap  crop 
may  be  seeded  early  in  the  season  and  then  plowed  under  deeply 
after  the  eggs  have  been  laid.     It  is  estimated  that  the  annual 
loss  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  from  the  attacks  of  this  insect 
is  over  4  million  bushels. 

131.  The  Chinch  Bug.  —  During  the  winter  the  chinch  bugs 
hibernate  in  the  grass  or  under  rubbish,  and  in  the  spring  the 
females  fly  to  the  wheat  fields,  where  each  lays  from  100  to  200 
eggs  on  the  base  of  the  wheat  plants.     In  about  three  weeks  the 
eggs  hatch  and  the  young  insects  commence  to  sap  the  juices 
from  the  plants.     The  bugs  pass  through  six  stages  before  they 
become  full  grown.     They  live  on  the  wheat  for  some  time,  or 
until  harvest,  when  they  migrate  to  the  oats  or  corn.     Although 
the  adults  have  wings,  they  travel  on  foot  from  plant  to  plant 
and  from  field  to  field.     The  eggs  for  the  second'  brood  are  laid 
on  the  corn  plants,  and  when  the  insects  mature,  they  fly  to  the 
grass  lands  for  the  winter.     The  control  of  this  pest  is  accom- 
plished in  most  cases  by  burning  the  grass  and  rubbish  early  in 
the  spring,  thus  destroying  the  adults  before  the  eggs  are  laid. 
Since  they  travel  on  foot,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  keep  them 
from  passing  from  one  field  to  another  by  spreading  a  narrow 
strip  of  tar  between  the  infected  field  and  the  one  to  be  protected. 


144  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

Many  of  the  insects  may  be  killed  by  placing  post  holes  every 
few  rods  and  connecting  them  with  strips  of  tar.  The  insects 
will  follow  the  tar  and  finally  fall  into  the  holes,  where  they  may 
be  destroyed.  Other  insects  are  in  certain  seasons  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  crop,  but  the  ones  discussed  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. 


CHAPTER  VI 

OATS 

THE  cultivation  of  oats  is  of  more  recent  date  than  that 
of  wheat  and  barley.  They  were  not  grown  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Egyptians,  but  probably  were  cultivated  at 
an  early  date  by  the  less  civilized  people  that  inhabited 
east  central  Europe,  which  is  thought  to  be  the  original 
home  of  this  crop.  Oats  were  less  important  than  wheat 
and  barley  in  the  early  development  of  southern  Europe, 
but  came  into  importance  with  the  civilization  and 
development  of  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  this 
country,  and  have  until  the  present  time  been  one  of  the 
important  cereals  in  these  sections.  Cultivated  oats 
have  probably  been  derived  from  a  wild  species,  Avena 
fatua,  which  is  found  growing  wild  in  many  parts  of  the 
country.  The  oat  plant  is  closely  related  to  the  tall  oat 
grass  which  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  Europe  and  in 
the  United  States  for  forage.  It  is  also  closely  related  to 
the  wild  oat,  Avena  sterilis,  which  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  is  found  growing  wild. 

132.  Botanical  characters.  —  The  oat,  Avena  saliva, 
like  the  other  cereals,  is  an  annual  grass  with  jointed  stems 
and  a  fibrous  root  system.  The  roots  in  their  manner  of 
growth  are  similar  to  those  of  wheat,  although  as  a  rule 
they  do  not  penetrate  the  ground  so  deeply.  The  stems 
are  somewhat  coarser  and  larger  in  diameter  than  those  of 
L  145 


146 


FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 


wheat,  and  are  greatly  influenced  in  number  and  in  the 
height  to  which  they  grow  by  environment.  Usually  one 
seed  produces  from  three  to  seven  stems  and  their  height 
varies  from  2  to  5  or  more  feet,  the  average  probably  being 
about  3J  feet.  The  height  of  the  stems  depends  to  a 
considerable  extent  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  to 
some  extent  upon  the  variety  and  the  rate  of  planting. 


FIG.  50.  —  Spikelet  of  oats.      Number  1  shows  parts  in  position, 
Number  2,  spikelet  dissected. 

133.  The  leaves.  —  The  leaves  are  broader  and  more 
numerous  than  those  of  wheat,  and  the  blade  varies  in 
length  from  6  to  15  inches.  On  account  of  their  large  and 
more  numerous  leaves,  oats  are  not  as  desirable  a  nurse 
crop  for  clovers  or  grasses  as  is  wheat  or  barley.  The 
proportion  of  straw  to  grain  is  more  variable  than  that 
of  wheat,  varying  in  this  respect  from  1.3  to  4  or  more 
pounds  of  straw  for  each  pound  of  grain. 


OATS  147 

134.  The  flower.  —  The  inflorescence  is  in  the  form  of  a 
panicle,  which  consists  of  a  central  stem  or  rachis,  the 
nodes  of  which  are  comparatively  few  and  far  apart,  and 
from  each  node  several  small  branches  are  given  off. 
The  branches  coming  from  a  single  node  are  called  collec- 
tively a  whorl,  the  number  of  whorls,  therefore,  correspond- 
ing to  the  number  of  nodes,  which  varies  from  3  to  6. 
The  number  of  branches  per  whorl  varies  from  2  to  5  or 
more.  The  branches  are  of  various  lengths,  those  of  the 
lower  whorls  being  longer  usually  than  those  of  the  upper 
whorls.  The  branches  from  the  same  whorl  vary  in  length, 
some  of  them  rebranching.  The  spikelets  are  carried  at 
the  end  of  rather  long  pedicels.  The  number  of  spikelets 
per  panicle  may  vary  from  30  to  70  or  more.  Each  spike- 
let  is  made  up  of  two  large,  chaffy  outer  glumes  which 
inclose  two  or  more  flowers,  usually  only  two  of  which 
produce  kernels.  The  flowers  are  made  up  of  three 
stamens  and  a  branched,  feathery  stigma  and  ovule.  The 
flowers  open  only  for  a  few  hours,  and  almost  always 
fertilization  has  been  effected  before  they  open.  Thus 
oats  are  usually  self-pollinated  and  there  is  little  danger  of 
mixing  when  two  varieties  are  grown  side  by  side. 

The  developed  kernel  remains  tightly  inclosed  within 
the  flowering  glume  and  palea.  The  two  kernels  of  a 
spikelet  are  of  unequal  size,  the  lower  one  being  the  larger. 
If  three  flowers  develop,  as  is  quite  commonly  the  case, 
the  third  kernel  is  the  smallest  of  the  three,  and  usually  is 
so  small  as  to  be  of  little  value.  In  some  varieties  the 
flowering  glume  bears  a  small  awn,  or  beard,  which,  unlike 
that  of  wheat  or  barley,  does  not  come  from  the  tip  of  the 
glume,  but  arises  from  a  point  about  two-thirds  of  the 
distance  from  the  base.  The  oat  grain,  as  the  term  is 
commonly  used,  refers  to  the  flowering  glume  and  palea, 


148 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


or  the  hull  together  with  the  inclosed  kernel.     The  pro- 
portion of  hull  to  kernel  varies  with  the  variety  and  with 


FIG.  51.  —  Side  panicle  of  oats. 

the  environment  of  growth.     The  percentage  of  hull  varies 
from  20  to  40  or  more  per  cent,  the  average  being  about 


OATS 


149 


30  per  cent.     When  grown  under  unfavorable  conditions, 

the  percentage  of  hull  is  relatively  high,   while  favor- 

able conditions  for 

growth  produce 

short,  plump  grains, 

with  a  relatively  low 

percentage  of  hull. 

The  size,  shape,  and 

color   of   the   grain 

vary  with  the  con- 

ditions   of    growth, 

and  with  the  vari- 

ety.   The  most  com- 

mon colors  are  white 

and  yellow,  although 

quite  a  few  varieties 

are   black,  gray,  or 

red  in  color.     The 

legal  weight  per 

bushel  in  most  states 

is  32  pounds.    How- 

ever, the  weight  per 

measured     bushel 

varies  with  the  va- 

riety, the  season,  and 

the  time  of  cutting, 

and    due    to    these 

factors,   will    some- 

times show  a  range 

of   from   20   to    50 

pounds  per  bushel. 

"  Clipped  oats  "  is  a  market  term  employed  to  define  oats 

that  have  had  a  part  of  the  hull  clipped  off  by  machinery 


FlG"  52'  ~  Branched 


°f 


150  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

to  reduce  the  percentage  of  hull  and  increase  the  weight 
per  bushel.  The  standard  weight  per  bushel  for  clipped 
oats  in  most  markets  is  45  pounds. 

135.  Types  of  oats.  —  Oats  may  be  divided  according 
to  the  appearance  of  the  panicle  into  two  classes,  spreading 
or  open,  and  side  or  closed.     In  the  spreading  sort  the 
branches  of  the  panicle  stand  out  at  different  angles  from 
the  rachis,  giving  the  panicle  an  open  appearance,  while 
in  the  side  oats  the  branches  grow  more  or  less  upright, 
giving  a  closed  appearance,  and  are  arranged  on  one  side 
of  the  rachis.     The  spreading  type  is  the  more  commonly 
grown.     Oats  may  also  be  classified  into  spring  and  winter 
varieties.     The  winter  varieties,  like  winter  wheat,  are 
seeded  in  the  fall  and  harvested  the  next  summer.     Winter 
varieties  are  grown  only  in  sections  of  the  country  having 
mild,  open  winters,  like  those  prevailing  in  the  Southern 
States  and  along  the  Pacific  Coast.     Oats  are  sometimes 
divided  into  early,  medium,  and  late  varieties,  based  upon 
the  time  of  ripening.     Usually  the  early  varieties  have 
short  straw  and  small  grains,  while  the  later  varieties 
grow  taller  and  as  a  rule  have  larger  and  plumper  grains. 
Sixty-day  and  Burt  are  well-known  early  varieties,  while 
the  Swedish  Select,   Siberian,  Big  Four,   and  American 
Banner  are  the  more  common  medium  and  late  varieties. 
On  the  market,  oats  are  classified  according  to  the  color 
of  the  grain,  as  white,  black,  and  mixed  oats. 

USES   OF  OATS 

136.  The  grain  as  food.  —  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
our  oat  crop  is  used  for  feeding  live  stock.     Oats  are 
relatively  high  in  protein  and  are  therefore  useful  for 
feeding  to  young  animals,  as  they  furnish  a  large  amount 
of  muscle-building  material.     They  have  long  been  held 


OATS  151 

in  high  esteem  for  feeding  horses,  particularly  those  at 
heavy  work,  many  horsemen  preferring  them  to  any 
other  grain  feed.  For  horses  they  are  not  usually  ground, 
and  they  may  either  be  fed  alone  or  in  combination  with 
other  grains.  They  are  highly  prized  for  feeding  sheep, 
especially  ewes  and  growing  lambs.  They  may  also  be 
fed  to  hogs  and  cattle,  and  for  this  purpose  they  are 
usually  ground,  often  in  combination  with  other  grains. 
Not  a  little  of  our  oat  crop  is  used  for  human  food,  almost 
all  of  that  which  is  used  in  this  country  being  in  the  form 
of  "  rolled  oats."  Rolled  oats  are  prepared  for  use  by 
removing  the  hull  and  then  flaking  the  kernels  by  running 
them  between  heavy  rollers  to  press  them  into  thin  flakes. 
In  this  form  they  are  boxed  and  placed  on  the  market. 
To  prepare  them  for  serving,  they  must  be  cooked  in 
water  for  some  time  in  order  to  break  down  the  cellulose 
and  render  the  starch  grains  thoroughly  cooked.  Only 
the  best  grades  of  oats  are  used  for  making  rolled  oats, 
and  grain  for  this  purpose  commands  the  highest  price 
on  the  market.  Oats  have  long  been  used  in  Europe  for 
food,  especially  in  Scotland,  where  they  hold  an  important 
place  in  the  dietary  of  the  people,  being  used  there  largely 
in  the  form  of  oat  meal  or  ground  oats. 

137.  Use  as  forage.  —  Oat  straw  is  highly  prized  for 
feeding  live  stock,  since  it  is  more  readily  eaten  and  con- 
tains greater  feeding  value  than  the  straw  from  other 
cereals.  It  is  frequently  used  as  roughage  for  keeping 
stock  over  the  winter,  but  it  should  not  be  used  extensively 
for  feeding  growing  stock,  milch  cows,  or  horses  at  work. 
Oat  straw  is  also  valuable  for  bedding,  since  it  is  rather 
less  harsh  than  other  straws,  contains  no  beards,  and 
absorbs  liquids  quite,  readily. 

Sometimes  oats  are  cut  for  hay  or  used  for  pasture  or 


152  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

for  soiling  purposes.  When  used  for  hay,  they  should  be 
cut  when  the  grains  are  in  the  dough  stage.  Oat  hay  is 
very  palatable  and  possesses  high  feeding  value.  The 
quality  and  feeding  value  is  greatly  improved,  however, 
if  field  peas  are  seeded  with  the  oats.  The  rate  of  seeding 
and  time  of  cutting  this  combination  crop  is  discussed 
in  the  paragraph  on  field  peas.  Oats  may  be  used  to 
supply  quick  temporary  pasture  for  all  kinds  of  stock, 
and  when  grown  for  that  purpose  or  for  hay,  a  large 
growing,  broad  leafed  variety  should  be  selected. 

PRODUCTION   AND    DISTRIBUTION 

138.  The  world's  production.  —  The  world's  produc- 
tion of  oats  in  bushels  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
cereal,  but  on  account  of  the  lighter  weight  per  bushel 
is  exceeded  in  total  number  of  pounds  by  corn  and  wheat. 
The  world's  annual  production  for  the  five  years   1907- 
1911  is  approximately  4000  million  bushels,  or  slightly 
greater  than  the  amount  of  corn  and  wheat  grown.     Of 
this  amount  the  United  States  produced  the  largest  amount, 
having    an    average    annual   production   of    945    million 
bushels.     During    the    same    period    European    Russia 
produced  annually  885  million  bushels,   Germany,   585 
million  bushels,    Canada,    315   million   bushels,    France, 
303  million  bushels,   and  Austria-Hungary,  254  million 
bushels.     Other  countries  in  which  the  crop  is  important, 
but  which,  on  account  of  their  smaller  acreage,  do  not 
have  a  large  total  production,  are  the  United  Kingdom, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  and  Sweden. 

139.  Production  in  the  United  States.  —  In  the  United 
States  oats  rank  second  to  corn  in  the  number  of  bushels 
produced,  but  are  exceeded  in  value  by  corn,  cotton,  hay, 
and  wheat.     A  large  proportion  of  the  oat  crop  of  the 


OATS  153 

United  States  is  produced  in  the  Central,  North  Central, 
and  adjacent  states.  Iowa  is  the  largest  producer, 
with  Illinois  a  close  second,  each  state  devoting  more  than 
10  per  cent  of  her  total  land  area  to  this  crop,  and  together 
producing  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  crop  for  this 
country.  Other  states  devoting  large  areas  and  having 
a  large  production  are  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  the  Dakotas,  Kansas,  Penn- 
sylvania, Texas,  and  Missouri.  The  area  devoted  to 
oats  in  the  Southern  States  of  the  United  States  comprises 
less  than  12  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage  of  that  section, 
and  furnishes  less  than  9  per  cent  of  the  total  production 
of  the  United  States. 

140.  Yield  per  acre.  —  The  highest  yield    per  acre  is 
obtained  in  Germany,  where  for  the  ten  years  1902-1911 
the  average  annual  yield  per  acre  is  51.4  bushels.     The 
United  Kingdom  ranks  next  with  44.7  bushels  per  acre  for 
the  same   period.     France  secures  30  bushels,   Austria- 
Hungary,  31,  and  the  United  States,  29.4  bushels  per  acre. 
While  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  relatively  low  for  the 
United  States,  some  few  states,  those  that  grow  but  small 
acreages,  usually  by  the  aid  of  irrigation,  produce  yields 
rivaling  those  of  Germany.     The  state  of  Washington 
for  the  ten  years  1902-1911  has  an  average  annual  yield 
of  47.6  bushels  per  acre.     This  record  was  made,  however, 
on   a  comparatively  small   acreage   artificially  supplied 
with  water,  and  is  not  to  be  compared  with  the  yield 
secured  by  other  states  on  larger  areas  without  irrigation. 
The   great   oat-producing   states,    however,    secure   only 
from  25  to  35  bushels  per  acre,  while  in  the  Southern 
States  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  less  than  22  bushels. 

141.  Exports  and  imports.  —  For  the  five  years  1907- 
1911    the    United    States    exported    annually    2,090,000 


154  FIELD    CROP   PRODUCTION 

bushels  of  oats  and  imported  annually  1,665,000  bushels. 
Much  of  the  export  goes  to  European  markets,  where 
a  crop  shortage  usually  exists.  The  import  is  largely 
from  Canada,  and  smaller  amounts  come  from  northern 
Europe  for  seed  purposes.  Sometimes  in  years  of  crop 
shortage  here,  oats  are  imported  from  countries  other  than 
Canada,  usually  from  Argentina. 

ADAPTATION 

142.  Climate.  — •  Oats  are  best  adapted  to  a  cool, 
moist  climate,  and  reach  their  best  development  in  Great 
Britain,  Norway,  Germany,  Canada,  and  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States.  They  do  not  grow  well  in  hot 
climates  unless  favored  with  an  abundance  of  rainfall, 
and  are  therefore  not  as  productive  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  United  States  as  they  are  farther  north.  Not 
only  does  the  climate  affect  the  yield,  but  it  also  has  a 
considerable  influence  upon  the  physical  character  of  the 
grain.  Varieties  grown  in  warm  climates  are  usually  less 
plump  and  have  a  lighter  weight  per  bushel  than  those 
grown  in  cooler  climates.  When  grown  in  warm  climates, 
frequently  long  awns  are  produced  and  the  grains  are 
often  a  gray  or  dun  color,  with  a  high  percentage  of  hull. 
Northern  grown  varieties  more  often  have  short,  plump 
grains,  with  a  short  awn,  low  percentage  of  hull,  and  high 
weight  per  bushel.  Sometimes  growers  secure  their 
seed  every  few  years  from  states  farther  north,  with  a 
view  to  improving  the  crop  and  increasing  the  yield  above 
that  secured  from  native  seed.  Experiments  at  the 
Ohio  and  Iowa  stations  indicate  that  little  improvement 
may  be  expected  from  this  practice.  At  the  Ohio  Station 
seed  secured  from  northern  states  did  not  produce  better 
than  home  grown  seed  of  the  same  variety. 


OATS  155 

143.  Soils.  —  Oats  have   a  wide   adaptation  to  soils, 
and  fair  yields  may  be  secured  on  almost  all  types  of  soils 
in  cool,  moist  climates.     They  have  a  wider  adaptation  to 
soils  than  almost  any  of  the  other  cereals.     Of  course 
much  better  yields  are  secured  from  fertile  than  from  poor 
soils,  but  compared  with  other  cereals  good  yields  may  be 
secured  on  relatively  poor  lands.     Oats  draw  rather  more 
heavily  upon  the  moisture  of  a  soil  than  any  of  the  other 
cereals,  and  soils  that  retain  moisture  well  are  best  adapted 
to  their  culture.     On  very  fertile  soils  they  are  likely  to 
produce  a   rank  growth  of   stem,  and   quite  frequently, 
under    such  conditions,  lodge  badly  and   produce  corre- 
spondingly more   straw  than   grain.     This   tendency  to 
lodge  is  a  serious  objection  to  their  use  as  a  nurse  crop 
for    clovers  or    grasses,  since  the  latter  may  be  smoth- 
ered out  by  them.     On  fertile  soils  the  grower  should 
select  a  short  strawed,  early  variety  which  may  be  har- 
vested before  summer  storms  lay  it  low. 

METHODS   OF    CULTURE 

144.  Place  in  the  rotation.  —  In  the  corn   belt  states 
oats   usually  follow   corn  in  the   rotation.     A   common 
four-year  rotation  is  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  hay.     When 
wheat  is  omitted,   corn,   oats,  and  hay  form  the  usual 
sequence.     The  rotation  may  be  extended  to  cover  four 
years  by  allowing  the  meadow  to  stand  for  two  years. 
In  the  South,  where  winter  oats  are  principally  grown  and 
cotton  enters  into  the  rotation,  a  common  sequence  is 
cotton,  corn,  and  oats.    Frequently  a  catch  crop  of  cowpeas 
or  bur  clover  is  used  between  the  corn  and  oats,  and  also 
between  oats  and  cotton.     When  the  oat  is  the  only  small 
grain  grown  in  the  rotation,  it  is  frequently  used,  espe- 
cially in  the  corn  belt  states,  as  a  nurse  crop  for  clovers 


156  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

and  grasses.  Oats  are  not  so  good  for  this  purpose  as 
wheat  or  barley,  because  they  start  growth  early  and  grow 
rapidly,  drawing  heavily  upon  the  moisture  in  the  soil, 
thus  frequently  preventing  the  grass  and  clover  from 
getting  a  good  start.  Oats,  having  wider  leaves  than  wheat 
and  barley,  are  likely  to  produce  too  much  shade  to  render 
them  an  ideal  nurse  crop.  In  fertile  soils,  they  are  more 
likely  to  lodge  and  smother  out  the  young  plants.  An- 
other reason  why  oats  are  not  so  desirable  as  wheat  and 
barley  in  which  to  seed  grasses  and  clovers  is  that 
they  do  not  ripen  so  early  as  either  of  the  other  two,  and 
are  therefore  not  removed  from  the  field  until  later  in 
the  season,  thus  retarding  the  new  growth  until  late  in 
the  summer.  Many  farmers  succeed  in  getting  good 
stands  of  grasses  and  clovers  in  oats,  but  where  this 
practice  is  followed,  the  best  results  are  obtained  by 
using  an  early  variety  of  oats. 

145.  Preparing  the  seed  bed.  —  Perhaps  none  of  the 
grain  crops  are  seeded  with  as  little  preparation  of  the 
ground  as  are  oats.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  hardiness 
of  the  plant  and  in  part  to  the  desire  to  get  the  crop  in 
early  so  as  not  to  delay  the  planting  of  other  spring  crops, 
such  as  corn.  In  many  places,  oats  are  seeded  on  the 
corn  ground  without  any  previous  preparation.  Some- 
times they  are  sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  a  disk 
while  in  other  cases  they  are  sown  with  a  disk  drill.  Some 
farmers  follow  the  practice  of  breaking  up  the  soil  with  a 
disk  or  spring  tooth  harrow,  and  then  leveling  it  with  a 
smoothing  harrow  before  seeding.  Still  others  plow  the 
land  and  further  fit  it  with  the  harrow.  The  best  practice 
to  follow  will  depend  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
and  upon  the  amount  of  time  available  for  seeding  the 
crop.  On  some  types  of  soil  the  increase  of  yield  obtained 


OATS 


157 


by  plowing  the  land,  over  that  secured  by  disking,  or 
even  entire  lack  of  preparation,  is  not  enough  to  pay  for 
the  extra  labor  involved.  At  the  Ohio  Station  an  experiment 
on  silt  loam  soil,  extending  over  a  period  of  four  years,  re- 
sulted in  higher  yields  from  the  practice  of  disking  than  from 
either  no  preparation 
or  plowing.  On  some 
types  of  soil  it  is 
probable  that  disking 
would  not  result  in 
an  increased  yield 
sufficient  to  justify 
the  extra  labor,  while 
with  other  soils,  par- 
ticularly those  which 
are  weedy,  plowing 
may  be  desirable. 
Oats  may  either  be 
sown  broadcast  and 
covered  with  a  disk 
or  spike  toothed 
harrow,  or  they  may 
be  sown  with  a  grain 


FIG. 


53.  —  Broadcasting    oats  —  the    old 
way  of  seeding. 


drill.     The  latter 
method  is  to  be  rec- 
ommended,  as  a  more  uniform  stand  may  be  secured 
and  usually  a  larger  yield  is  obtained. 

Commercial  fertilizer  and  barnyard  manure  are  not 
usually  applied  to  the  oat  crop  in  the  corn  belt  states. 
Experience  has  shown  that  larger  returns  from  the  ferti- 
lizers may  usually  be  obtained  if  they  are  applied  to  some 
other  crop  in  the  rotation.  Fertilization  of  oats  fre- 
quently causes  rank  growth  of  straw  without  a  corre- 


158  FIELD    CROP  PRODUCTION 

spending  increase  of  grain,  and  with  the  rank  growth, 
Jodging  frequently  results.  Fertilizers  may  best  be  applied 
to  the  corn  or  wheat  lands,  except  with  very  poor  soils, 
where  it  may  be  desirable  to  fertilize  the  oats  also. 

146.  Time  of  seeding.  —  Oats  are  a  cool  weather  crop 
and  best   results  may  usually  be   obtained    from   early 
rather  than  later  seeding.     Early  seeding  may  be  regarded 
as  that  done  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  in  the  spring 
to  get  on  to  it  with  team  and  implements.     In  a  time 
of  seeding  test  at  the  Ohio  Station,  for  a  three-year  aver- 
age, the  earliest  seed- 
ings     outyielded     the 
latest  seedings  by  18.37 
bushels  per  acre.     The 
weight  per  bushel  was 
also    influenced   to    a 
considerable  extent  by 
the   time   of   seeding, 

„  the    earlier   .  seedings 

FIG.  54.  —  Seeding  oats  with  a  drill.  .  .  e 

having  heavier  weight 

per  bushel.  This  result  was  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
earlier  seeded  plants  completed  their  growth  before  hot 
weather,  while  those  seeded  later  did  not  fill  out  as  well 
on  account  of  the  hot  weather.  In  the  South,  where 
winter  oats  are  grown,  fall  seeding  is  practiced .  The 
time  of  seeding  varies  with  the  latitude,  in  the  northern 
part  of  this  section  the  seeding  being  done  in  late  Sep- 
tember, while  farther  south  it  is  delayed  until  late  October. 

147.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  Before  seeding,  the  oats  should 
be   run   through   a   fanning   mill   equipped   with   proper 
screens  to  remove  small  and  light  kernels,  sticks,  trash, 
and  weed  seeds.     This  not  only  insures  a  more  uniform 
rate  of  seeding,  but  also  prevents  the  use  of  inferior  seeds. 


OATS 


159 


160 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


The  usual  rate  of  seeding  oats  varies  from  6  to  10  or  more 
pecks  per  acre,  the  most  common  rate  being  8  or  9  pecks. 
The  rate  of  seeding  will  depend  to  some  extent  upon  the 
size  of  the  kernels.  Varieties  with  large  kernels  should 
be  seeded  more  thickly  than  those  with  small  grains,  since 
there  are  not  so  many  of  the  former  per  bushel.  The 
variation  of  a  few  pecks  in  the  rate  of  seeding  does  not 
usually  affect  the  yield  materially,  since  the  plant  adjusts 


FIG.  56.  —  Variation  in  stiffness  of  straw  of  two  varieties  of  oats. 

itself  to  the  environment  by  tillering.  When  seeded 
thinly,  more  tillers  are  produced,  thus  thickening  up  the 
stand. 

148.  Harvesting.  —  The  same  methods  are  employed 
in  harvesting  the  larger  part  of  the  oat  crop  as  have  been 
described  for  harvesting  wheat.  The  time  of  cutting  to 
secure  the  best  quality  of  grain  is  after  the  grains  have 
reached  the  hard  dough  stage,  and  the  heads  have  turned 
yellow.  If  cut  before  this  time,  the  grains  will  be  shriv- 
eled, resulting  in  light  weight  per  bushel.  If  cutting  is 


OATS 


161 


delayed  too  long,  the  crop  may  become  overripe  and  loss 
will  occur  by  shattering.  Oats  usually  contain  more 
moisture  at  the  time  of  cutting  than  wheat,  and  in  order 
that  they  may  dry  thoroughly,  the  bundles  are  set  up  in 
smaller  shocks  than  wheat.  Usually  7  to  9  bundles  form 
a  shock.  The  shock  should  be  well  formed,  since  the 


FIG.  57.  —  Treating  seed  oats  for  smut.     The  formalin  method. 

straws  are  not  so  stiff  as  those  of  wheat,  and  the  shocks 
are  more  likely  to  go  down,  which  will  often  result  in 
injury  to  the  quality  of  the  grain  from  weathering.  Oats 
may  either  be  thrashed  from  the  shock  as  soon  as  they 
have  dried  out,  or  they  may  be  stacked  or  stored  in  the 
mow  for  later  thrashing. 

149.  Improvement  of  oats.  —  The  same  methods  for 
the  improvement  of  oats  are  employed  as  have  been 
described  in  the  paragraph  on  the  improvement  of  wheat. 


162 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


Great  variation  in  the  earliness  of  maturity,  stiffness  of 
straw,  resistance  to  rust,  and  abundance  of  yield  are 
to  be  found  in  almost  all  varieties.  A  great  opportunity 
for  improving  the  crop  is  therefore  within  reach  of  each 
grower  if  he  will  but  take  advantage  of  it. 


INSECT   ENEMIES  AND    FUNGOUS   DISEASES 

150.    Insect  enemies.  —  There  are  no  important  insects  which 
confine  their  attacks  to  the  oat  plant.      Several  insects  that 

are  destructive  to  wheat  are  also 
troublesome  to  oats,  chief  among 
which  are  the  chinch  bugs,  grass- 
hoppers, and  the  army  worms. 
The  most  important  of  these  in- 
sects and  the  methods  for  their 
control  have  been  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  wheat,  and  as  the  same 
methods  may  be  employed  to  pre- 
vent their  ravages  on  oats,  they 
need  not  be  discussed  again. 

161.  Fungous  diseases.  —  The 
most  destructive  diseases  that 
attack  the  oat  crop  are  the  rusts 
and  smuts.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  rusts,  the  leaf  rust  and  the 
stem  rust,  so  called  because  they 
most  commonly  attack  those 
parts  of  the  plant.  The  leaf  rust 
is  more  common  than  the  stem 
rust,  and  is  identified  by  the  red 
spores  on  the  leaves  at  harvest 
time.  In  seasons  favorable  for 
their  development,  the  spores  are 
frequently  so  plentiful  as  to  ad- 
here to  the  harvesting  machinery  and  the  clothing  of  the  har- 
vesters. There  are  two  kinds  of  smuts  that  attack  the  oat 
plant.  The  loose  smut  is  more  common  and  far  more  destructive 
than  the  covered  smut.  The  loose  smut  may  be  recognized  in 


FIG.    58.  —  Covered    and 
smut  of  oats. 


loose 


OATS  163 

the  field  by  the  black  powdery  spores  that  attack  the  panicle  and 
prevent  the  grains  and  glumes  from  developing.  The  covered 
smut  is  similar  in  appearance  to  the  leaf  smut,  but  it  does  not. 
attack  the  glumes,  affecting  only  the  kernels,  which  are  replaced 
in  the  glumes  by  masses  of  black  spores.  Methods  for  con- 
trolling these  smuts  are  the  same  as  those  employed  an  control- 
ling the  stinking  smut  of  wheat  and  have  been  described  in  con- 
nection with  this  disease  of  wheat  (page  132). 


CHAPTER  VII 
BARLEY 

THE  history  of  the  development  of  barley  in  its  rela- 
tion to  man  coincides  with  that  of  wheat.  Both  of  these 
cereals  have  been  closely  identified  with  the  progress  of 
civilization,  and  the  people  of  many  nations,  both  ancient 
and  modern,  have  depended  upon  them  not  only  for  food 
for  their  beasts  of  burden,  but  also  for  themselves.  How 
long  barley  has  been  grown  is  not  known,  but  evidence 
that  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  cultivated  grains  is  to  be 
found  in  the  history  of  the  earliest  nations  of  which  we 
have  knowledge.  Specimens  of  barley  have  been  taken 
from  the  tombs  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  coins 
used  by  these  people  bear  figures  of  barley  heads.  The 
literature  of  the  early  writers  of  Egypt  and  also  the  earlier 
books  of  the  Bible  contain  references  to  this  plant.  Barley 
was  used  at  that  time  for  making  bread,  and  also,  it  is 
said,  in  the  making  of  certain  drinks.  Botanists  generally 
agree  that  the  original  home  of  barley  was  in  the  western 
part  of  Asia,  where  wild  forms  of  it  are  still  to  be  found. 
The  people  that  inhabited  this  country  in  early  days 
probably  were  the  first  to  discover  its  usefulness  and  to 
cultivate  it.  From  western  Asia  barley  was  introduced 
into  almost  all  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  was  the  chief 
bread  plant,  it  is  said,  until  the  sixteenth  century.  Barley 
was  introduced  at  an  early  date  into  America  and  was 
used  by  the  colonists  as  food  both  for  man  and  beast. 

164 


BARLEY 


165 


152.  Botanical  characters.  —  Barley,  Hordeum  sati- 
vwn,  has  much  the  same  appearance  as  wheat,  differing 
from  the  latter  slightly  in  the  length  of  the  culms,  the 
shape  of  the  leaves,  and  the  structure  of  the  spike.  The 
roots  of  barley  are  somewhat  less  extensive  than  those  of 


FIG.  59.  —  Spikelets  of  barley:  1,  two-rowed  type;  2,  the  six-rowed 


bearded  ;   3,  six-rowed  beardless  ; 
relative  position  of  parts. 


4,  showing   three   spikelets   and    the 


wheat,  and  do  not  grow  so  deeply.  The  culms  are  not 
usually  as  tall,  and  the  percentage  of  straw  to  grain  is  less 
than  that  of  wheat.  Barley  produces  rather  more  culms 
per  plant  than  wheat,  under  favorable  conditions  produc- 
ing as  many  as  15  or  more  per  plant.  The  leaves  are  some- 
what broader  than  those  of  the  other  cereals.  The  more 
marked  characters  that  distinguish  it  from  wheat  are  the 
arrangement  and  structure  of  the  spikelets  and  the  shape 


166 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


of  the  glumes.  The  spikelets  are  but  one-flowered,  and 
are  inclosed  in  the  flowering  glume  and  palea,  both  of 
which,  in  all  varieties  except  the  hull-less,  cling  to  the 
t  kernel  after  thrashing.  The  ker- 
nels, after  the  glumes  or  hulls  are 
removed,  have  much  the  same 
appearance  as  wheat  kernels, 
being  creased  on  one  side  like 
wheat,  but  having  more  rounded 
sides  and  a  more  pointed  tip. 
The  flowering  glumes  bear  stiff, 
sharply  barbed  awns,  which  vary 
from  3  to  6  inches  in  length. 
The  awns  or  beards  of  barley  are 
much  stiffer  and  are  more  dis- 
agreeable to  handle  than  those 
of  wheat  or  rye.  The  outer  glume 
is  awl  or  bristle  shaped  and  varies 
in  length  from  f  to  1J  inches  in 
length.  The  spikelets  are  sessile 
and  three  are  produced  from  each 
joint  of  the  rachis,  differing  in  this 
respect  from  both  wheat  and  rye. 
The  percentage  of  hull  in  barley 
varies  from  10  to  25  per  cent  or 
more,  the  average  being  about  15 
or  16  per  cent.  The  character  of 
the  endosperm  varies  from  mealy 
to  glassy  or  vitreous.  The  char- 
acter of  the  endosperm  also  varies  with  the  variety, 
the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  the  plant  was,  cut  and  the 
climate.  The  fully  matured  kernel  usually  is  more 
mealy  in  character  than  the  immature  one,  and  contains 


FIG.  60.  — A  head  of  two- 
rowed  barley  (side  view) . 


BAP LET 


167 


a  higher  percentage  of  starch  and  a  lower 
percentage  of  protein  than  those  of  glassy 
texture.  The  chemical  composition  of  the 
hulled  kernel  is  about  the  same  as  that  of 
wheat.  When  the  hull  is  also  considered, 
the  percentage  composition  is  changed  on 
account  of  the  crude  fiber  of  the  hull.  The 
legal  weight  per  bushel  in  most  states  is 
48  pounds.  The  weight  per  bushel  may 
vary  a  few  pounds  either  way,  a  high 
weight  per  bushel  being  associated  with 
high  percentage  of  starch. 

153.  Types  of  barley.  —  Barleys  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  two- 
rowed  and  six-rowed.  The  basis  for  this 
classification  is  to  be  found  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  spikelets  on  the  rachis.  In 
the  six-rowed  type,  three  spikelets,  each 
of  which  produces  one  kernel,  are  pro- 
duced at  each  joint  of  the  rachis.  In 
the  two-rowed  type  three  spikelets  are 
produced  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis,  but 
only  the  center  one  produces  a  kernel,  the 
two  lateral  spikelets  not  fully  developing. 
A  head  of  the  latter  type  has  the  appear- 
ance of  having  only  two  rows,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  rachis,  while  the  former 
type  gives  the  appearance  of  having  six 
rows,  three  on  each  side  of  the  rachis. 
The  two-rowed  varieties  usually  grow  a  little  taller  than 
the  six-rowed,  and  the  kernels  are  somewhat  larger  and 
longer  than  those  of  the  latter  type.  In  the  United 
States  the  two-rowed  varieties  are  largely  grown  in  the 


FIG.  61.  —  A 
head  of  six-rowed 
barley. 


168  FIELD  CEOP  PRODUCTION 

Dakotas,  the  Chevalier  and  Hanna  being  the  most  promi- 
nent varieties.  The  two-rowed  types  are  more  commonly 
grown  in  Europe,  while  in  this  country  the  six-rowed 
varieties  are  more  common,  the  principal  varieties  of 
which  are  Manchuria,  Oderbrucker,  and  Bay  Brew. 

Barleys  may  also  be  divided  into  the  bearded  and 
beardless  varieties.  The  beardless  varieties  are  not  so 
commonly  grown  as  the  bearded.  They  may  also  be 
divided  into  spring  and  winter  varieties.  The  winter 
varieties  are  not  so  hardy  as  winter  wheat  and  are  largely 
grown  in  the  Southern  States  or  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
The  spring  varieties  are  of  both  the  two  and  the  six  rowed 
types,  and  are  grown  in  the  northern  half  of  the  United 
States.  While  in  most  varieties  of  barley  the  hull  adheres 
to  the  kernel  after  thrashing,  in  some  few  the  hull  is 
shed  during  thrashing  like  wheat.  The  hull-less  varieties 
are  usually  named  after  the  color  of  the  grains.  Thus 
the  common  varieties  of  this  type  are  white  hull-less 
and  black  hull-less.  Hull-less  barleys  weigh  sixty  pounds 
per  bushel. 

USES   OF   BARLEY 

154.  The  making  of  malt.  —  Over  50  per  cent  of  the 
barley  crop  produced  in  the  United  States  each  year  is 
used  for  the  making  of  malt,  which  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  beer  and  other  malt  liquors.  Malt  is  the  grain 
artificially  germinated  so  as  to  induce  certain  changes  in 
its  composition.  When  the  grain  germinates,  a  nitrog- 
enous ferment,  diastase,  which  exists  in  the  kernel,  is 
increased  in  amount.  The  diastase  acts  upon  the  starch 
of  the  kernel,  changing  it  into  a  soluble  sugar  and  dextrin. 
The  object  of  malting  is  to  obtain  the  largest  amount  of 
sugar  possible  by  converting  the  starch  of  the  barley 
grain  into  sugar,  which  is  then  dissolved  and  changed 


BARLEY  169 

into  alcohol  by  fermentation.  The  process  of  changing 
barley  into  malt  is  divided  into  four  stages :  steeping, 
couching,  flooring,  and  kiln-drying.  The  barley  when  it 
comes  to  the  maltster  is  first  cleaned  to  remove  all 
foreign  matter  and  broken  or  cracked  kernels.  It  is 
then  steeped  or  soaked  in  large  tanks  for  two  or  three 
days,  or  until  the  kernels  may  be  crushed  with  the  fingers. 
The  grain  is  then  removed  to  the  couching  floor,  where 
it  is  spread  out  in  a  layer  about  20  inches  thick.  In 
from  20  to  36  hours  the  grain  heats  and  begins  to  germi- 
nate. It  is  then  spread  out  in  a  layer  10  to  12  inches 
thick  and  turned  every  few  hours,  the  layer  being  gradu- 
ally reduced  in  thickness  to  about  4  inches.  During  this 
time  the  grain  continues  to  germinate,  and  when  the  plu- 
mule is  about  three-fourths  the  length  of  the  grain,  the 
largest  amount  of  diastase  is  present  and  the  germination 
is  stopped  by  removing  the  grain  to  a  large  kiln,  where  it 
is  heated  to  a  temperature  sufficient  to  kill  the  germ. 
The  sprouts  are  then  removed  by  a  special  machine.  They 
are  placed  on  the  market  under  the  name  of  malt  sprouts 
and  are  used  extensively  for  stock  food.  After  the 
sprouts  are  removed,  the  dry  malt  is  crushed  between 
rollers,  and  other  cereals,  principally  rice  and  corn,  are 
added.  The  barley  produces  more  than  enough  diastase 
to  change  its  own  starch  into  sugar,  so  a  small  quantity 
of  other  cereals  may  be  added  to  increase  the  amount  of 
starch.  The  dry  mash  together  with  the  other  cereals 
is  then  placed  in  the  mash  tub  and  when  water  is  added 
and  the  mixture  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  150°  Fahr- 
enheit the  diastase  rapidly  changes  the  starch  into 
sugar.  A  liquid  known  as  "  wort  "  results  which  contains 
the  sugar  in  solution.  The  mash  tub  has  a  sieve-like 
bottom  upon  which  the  hulls  settle,  permitting  the  liquid 


170  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

to  be  drawn  off  below,  the  hulls  forming  a  filter.  After 
the  liquid  is  drawn  off,  the  residue  that  remains  in  the 
tub  is  placed  on  the  market  and  sold  as  "  brewers'  grain," 
which  is  used  extensively  for.  stock  feeding.  The  wort  is 
then  boiled  with  hops  to  prevent  it  from  souring,  and 
later  is  cooled  and  yeast  is  added.  In  a  short  time  fer- 
mentation takes  place,  which  forms  the  malt  liquor. 
The  different  varieties  of  malt  liquors  are  formed  by 
varying  the  different  processes  in  malting. 

155.  Good  malting  barley.  —  Barley  is  better  adapted 
for  the  making  of  malt  than  other  cereals,  because  it 
contains  a  greater  amount  of  ferment  than  other  grains, 
and  also  because  it  contains  a  lesser  amount  of  undesirable 
albuminoids.     The  husks  are  also  of  service  in  protecting 
the  plumule  during  germination,   and  later  they  serve 
as  a  filter  when  the  wort  is  removed  from  the  tub.     A  good 
malting   barley    should    have    uniform,    plump,    starchy 
kernels.     The  vitality  should  not  be  less  than  95  per 
cent  and  the  husks  should  be  pale  straw  color  and  not 
possessed  of  deep  wrinkles.     Musty,  dirty  barley,  or  that 
containing  many  foreign  seeds,  is  not  desirable  for  malting. 
On  the  market  malting  barley  commands  the  best  prices, 
there  often  being  a  difference  of  30  cents  or  more  per 
bushel  between  the  price   paid    for    malt    and    feeding 
barley. 

156.  Feeding   value.  —  The   feeding   value  of   barley, 
when  the  hull  and  kernel  are  considered,  is  about  equal 
to  that  of  corn,  and  it  is  quite  extensively  used  in  some 
sections  of  the  country  for  that  purpose.     It  may  either 
be  ground  into  meal  or  fed  whole.     In  the  Central  West 
barley  is  used  largely  for  feeding  hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep. 
On  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  little  corn  or  oats  is  grown, 
it  is  used  extensively  for  feeding  horses.     Barley  straw, 


BARLEY  171 

while  comparatively  nutritious,  is  not  generally  used  for 
feeding  on  account  of  the  beards,  which  make  it  unpalat- 
able to  animals.  In  some  parts  of  the  Western  and 
Southern  States  barley  is  quite  extensively  cut  for  hay. 
Barley  hay  has  high  feeding  value,  and  if  cut  before 
the  beards  become  stiff,  makes  a  palatable  feed.  When 
cutting  for  hay  is  delayed  until  the  beards  are  stiff,  injury 
to  the  mouths  of  the  animals  to  which  it  is  fed  sometimes 
results.  In  some  places  barley  is  grown  for  pasture  and 
is  frequently  used  for  hogs  and  sheep. 

PRODUCTION   AND   DISTRIBUTION 

157.  The  world's  production.  —  The  world's  produc- 
tion of  barley  for  the  five  years  1907-1911  was  approx- 
imately 1400  million  bushels.  Of  this  amount,  approx- 
imately 400  million  bushels,  or  over  one-fourth,  was 
produced  in  Russia.  The  United  States  ranks  next  in 
total  production,  the  average  annual  production  for  the 
above  five  years  being  approximately  165  million  bushels. 
The  other  countries  producing  large  amounts,  in  order 
of  their  production,  were :  Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
Japan,  Spain,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  Canada.  Of 
the  total  production  in  the  United  States,  California 
produced  over  20  per  cent  and  Minnesota  over  19  per 
cent.  The  other  states  producing  large  amounts  in  order 
of  their  importance  are :  Wisconsin,  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Iowa,  and  Washington.  While  barley 
is  produced  in  many  other  states,  the  acreage  is  com- 
paratively small,  about  85  per  cent  of  the  total  produc- 
tion being  produced  in  the  above  named  states.  The 
average  yield  per  acre  for  the  United  States  is  approx- 
imately 25  bushels,  a  considerably  higher  one  than  that 
of  wheat  and  rye. 


172  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

158.  Exports     and    imports.  —  The     average    annual 
export  of  barley  from  the  United  States  for  the  ten  years 
1902-1911  has    been   approximately  10  million  bushels. 
Almost  all  the  export  grain  went  to  European  countries 
for  malting  purposes.     During  the  same  ten  years,  the 
average  annual  import  of  barley  has  been  approximately 
80  million  bushels,  some  of  which  was  imported  from 
Europe    for  use  as  seed,  much  of  the  remainder  came 
from  Canada.     The  average  farm  price  per  bushel  on  De- 
cember 1st  for  the  same  period  has  been  53.6  cents  per 
bushel,  with  a  range  of  price  varying  from  40  to  86  cents 
per  bushel. 

ADAPTATION 

159.  Climate  and  soil.  —  Barley  is  best  adapted  to  a 
warm,  dry  climate.     It  requires  less  water  during  the 
growing  season  than  wheat,  oats,  or  corn,  and  may  be 
grown  in  places  where  the  climate  is  not  adapted  to  the 
growing  of  corn  or  oats.     While  best  adapted  to  warm 
climates,  it  may  be  grown  farther  north,  as  the  required 
length  of  the  growing  season  is  less  than  that  for  oats  and 
wheat.     While  it  grows  best  on  comparatively  dry  soil, 
good  yields  may  be  obtained  where  there  is  abundant 
rainfall,  if  the  soil  is  well  drained.     Barley  grows  best 
on  well-drained  loams.     It  is  more  greatly  influenced  by 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  than  is  almost  any  other  grain  crop. 
On  poor  soils  the  straw  is  short  and  the  yield  of  grain  is 
low,  while  on  fertile  soils  it  grows  taller  and  produces 
more   abundantly.     While  this  is  generally  true  of   all 
crops,  the  variation  is  probably  greater  with  barley  than 
with  other  crops.     Barley  will  withstand  a  more  alkaline 
condition  of  the  soil  than  oats  or  wheat  and  may  there- 
fore be  grown  in  certain  sections  of  the  West  where  the 
latter  crops  cannot  be  grown  successfully. 


BARLEY  173 


METHODS   OF   CULTURE 

160.  Preparing  the  soil.  —  The  methods  employed  in 
preparing  the  soil  for  barley  will,  of  course,  depend  upon 
whether  it  is  to  be  seeded  in  the  fall  or  spring,  and  upon 
the  preceding  crop.  Barley  may  replace  either  oats  or 
wheat  in  the  rotation,  usually  following  corn,  potatoes, 
or  some  other  cultivated  crop.  It  is  commonly  used 
as  a  nurse  crop  for  grasses  and  clover,  and  because  of  its 
short  straws  and  early  maturity,  is  often  preferred  for 
this  purpose  to  either  oats  or  wheat.  Fall  seeding  re- 
quires a  well-prepared  seed  bed,  and  if  the  preceding 
crop  can  be  removed  in  time  to  permit  of  plowing,  better 
results  will  be  obtained  than  if  the  seed  bed  is  prepared 
without  plowing.  When  winter  barley  follows  cowpeas, 
soy  beans,  or  potatoes,  a  good  seed  bed  may  usually  be 
prepared  by  disking  and  harrowing  without  plowing. 
When  winter  barley  follows  corn,  usually  no  preparation 
can  be  given  the  seed  bed,  but  much  can  be  done  to  favor 
the  crop  if  the  corn  is  well  cultivated  during  its  growing 
season,  to  conserve  moisture  and  free  the  field  from 
weeds.  In  the  seeding  of  spring  barley  the  seed  bed  may 
best  be  prepared  if  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall.  If  it 
is  necessary  to  delay  the  plowing  until  spring,  it  should 
be  done  early  in  the  season  and  worked  down  so  as  to 
present  a  fine,  mellow  surface  and  a  rather  firm  sub-soil. 
Barley  requires  a  somewhat  finer  and  more  mellow  seed 
bed  than  oats,  and  usually  more  care  must  be  taken  in 
preparing  the  soil,  if  a  good  crop  is  to  be  expected. 
In  parts  of  the  country  where  there  is  little  rainfall 
during  the  growing  season  the  soil  should  be  handled 
in  such  a  way  as  to  conserve  as  much  moisture  as 
possible. 


174 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


BARLEY  175 

161.  Seeding.  —  The  small  and  shrunken  kernels  and 
weed  seeds,  together  with  other  foreign  matter,  should  be 
removed  by  a  fanning  mill  from  the  barley  before  seeding. 
Barley  may  either  be  seeded  with  a  grain  drill  or  sown 
broadcast.     The  former   method  is   to   be   preferred   in 
all  cases,  as  by  its  practice  higher  yields  are  secured,  and 
winter  barley  that  is  seeded  with  the  drill  is  less  likely 
to  be  winter-killed.     The  rate  of  seeding  with  the  grain 
drill  varies  from  6  to  8  pecks  per  acre.     When  broad- 
cast,  a  somewhat  heavier  rate  is  to  be  recommended. 
In  sections  of  the  country  having  little  rainfall,  a  lower 
rate  of  seeding,  sometimes  as  low  as  3  pecks  per  acre, 
gives  better  results  than  a  heavier  rate.     The  time  of 
seeding  spring  barley  is  slightly  later  than  that  for  oats, 
since  the  young  barley  plants  are  not  so  hardy  as  those  of 
wheat.     Winter  barley  is  seeded  usually  in  September  or 
early  October. 

162.  Harvesting.  —  Barley  is  at  the  proper  stage    of 
maturity  for   cutting  when  the  straw  and  heads  are  a 
golden  yellow  color,  and  the  kernels  are  in  the  hard  dough 
stage.     If  cut  while  the  straw  is  still  green,  the  kernels 
will  later  become  shriveled  and  will  retain  an  undesirable 
color.     If   the   barley   is   grown   for   the   market,    great 
care  should  be  exercised  in  shocking  so  as  to  prevent 
bleaching    or    weathering,    which    greatly    injures    the 
appearance,   and  thereby  decreases  the   market   value. 
The  shocks  should  be  well  formed  so  that  they  will  not 
be  blown  over  by  the  wind,  and  well  capped  so  as  to 
shed  the  rain.     If  a  thrasher  is  available,  the  crop  should 
be  thrashed  as  soon  as  the  bundles  have  dried  out.     Some- 
times, however,  it  is  necessary  to  wait  some  time  for  the 
thrashers,  in  which  case  the  barley  can  be  best  protected 
from  weathering  and  discoloring  by  stacking.     It  should 


176  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

not  be  stacked,  however,  until  the  bundles  are  well  dried 
out,  or  else  they  may  mold  or  become  musty  in  the 
stack. 

INSECT    ENEMIES    AND    FUNGOUS    DISEASES 

163.  Insect  enemies.  —  The    chinch    bug  and  the  Hessian 
fly  are  the  most  troublesome  enemies  of  growing  barley.    These 
insects,  together  with  methods  for  then*  control,  are  discussed 
in  the  chapter  on  wheat,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

164.  Fungous    diseases.  —  Barley   is    attacked    by   several 
diseases,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  rusts  and  the 
smuts.     There  are  two  kinds  of  rust,  the  leaf  rust  and  the  stem 
rust,  which  sometimes  do  the  crop  considerable  injury.    They 
may  best  be  controlled  by  early  seeding  and  the  growing  of 
early  maturing  varieties,  which  may  usually  be  harvested  before 
the  rusts  cause  serious  injury. 

Barley  is  attacked  by  two  kinds  of  smut,  the  loose  smut  and 
the  covered  smut.  The  loose  smut  may  be  controlled  by  treat- 
ing the  seed  by  the  hot  water  method  discussed  in  the  chapter 
on  wheat,  while  the  covered  smut  may  be  controlled  by  the 
formalin  treatment  similar  to  that  employed  in  treating  wheat 
for  stinking  smut  (page  132). 


CHAPTER  VIII 
RYE 

RYE  has  not  been  cultivated  nearly  so  long  as  has  either 
wheat  or  barley.  It  was  not  known  in  ancient  Egypt 
and  Greece,  and  according  to  Roman  writers  who  lived 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  it  was  at  that 
time  a  new  plant  in  that  country.  The  original  home  of 
rye  is  thought  to  have  been  in  northeastern  Europe, 
where  wild  rye,  which  is  probably  either  the  ancestor  of 
our  cultivated  rye  or  a  closely  related  form,  may  be 
found  growing  wild.  With  the  development  of  agri- 
culture in  Europe  during  the  past  1500  years,  the  culture 
of  rye  was  extended,  and  it  has  held  a  place  of  great 
importance  in  the  agriculture  of  many  nations.  Within 
the  last  half  century,  however,  the  culture  of  rye  in  all 
rye-growing  countries  has  been  declining,  as  the  culture 
of  some  of  the  other  cereals  such  as  wheat,  corn,  and  oats 
has  been  extended. 

165.  Botanical  characters.  —  Rye,  Secale  cereale,  in 
its  botanical  characters  and  relations,  its  general  appear- 
ance and  methods  of  culture,  resembles  wheat  more  closely 
than  do  any  of  the  other  cereals.  It  differs  from  wheat 
in  that  when  the  kernel  germinates,  it  produces  four 
instead  of  three  temporary  roots.  The  culms  are  longer 
and  more  slender  than  those  of  wheat,  sometimes  reaching 
a  height  of  6  or  7  feet  on  fertile  soils.  The  spikelet  has 
but  two  flowers,  each  of  which  usually  produces  a  kernel. 
N  177 


178 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


The  spike  of  rye  may  be  distinguished  from  that  of  wheat 
in  that  the  outer  glumes  are  long  and  narrow,  and  not 
boat-shaped  like  those  of  wheat.  The  flowering  glumes 
are  always  awned,  and  as  the  plant  ripens,  the  flowering 
glume  and  palea  spread  apart,  exposing  part  of  the  kernel. 
The  spike  is  usually  longer  than  that  of 
wheat,  sometimes  reaching  a  length  of  6  or 
7  inches.  The  number  of  spikelets  varies 
from  20  to  30,  and  unlike  wheat,  the  lower 
spikelets  are  fertile  and  produce  kernels. 
The  rye  kernel  is  longer  and  narrower  than 
that  of  wheat,  it  is  less  plump,  and  the  furrow 
or  crease  is  less  marked.  The  structure  of 
the  kernel  is  similar  to  that  of  wheat,  while 
in  chemical  composition  it  contains  somewhat 
less  protein  and  fat.  Rye  flour,  however, 
contains  gluten,  and  light,  coarse  bread 
may  be  made  from  it.  There  are  both 
spring  and  winter  varieties,  the  latter  being 
the  one  most  commonly  grown. 

USES    OF    RYE 

166.  Use  of  the  grain.  —  The  principal 
use  of  rye  is  in  the  making  of  bread  for 
human  consumption.  In  Russia  and  Ger- 
many, rye  bread  is  more  commonly  eaten 

lG'of3r7eea     than   that    made    from  wheat'      Germany 
devotes  about  10  per  cent  of  her  cultivated 

land  to  rye,  and  only  3.5  per  cent  to  the  growing  of  wheat. 
Rye  bread  has  always  been  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  until  recently  was  used  in  the  rations  of  the 
soldiers  of  the  Germany  army.  About  20  years  ago,  how- 
ever, on  account  of  the  shortage  of  rye,  wheat  bread  was 


EYE  179 

issued  in  the  soldiers'  rations,  and  since  that  time  its  use 
has  gradually  increased.  In  the  United  States  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  rye  crop  produced  here  is  used  in  the  making 
of  bread.  Rye  bread  is  not  held  in  such  high  esteem  by 
Americans  as  it  is  by  the  Germans  and  Russians,  and 
much  of  the  use  of  the  rye  for  this  purpose  in  the  United 
States  is  due  to  demands  for  it  by  the  foreign  population. 
Rye  flour  does  not  contain  a  large  amount  of  gluten,  and 
does  not  make  such  a  light  colored  nor  so  large  a  loaf 
as  that  made  from  the  wheat  flour.  Much  of  the  rye  in 
this  country  is  used  in  the  making  of  alcoholic  beverages. 
The  grain  is  also  used  to  some  extent  for  feeding  live 
stock,  usually  being  ground  and  fed  in  combination  with 
other  grains  to  hogs  or  horses. 

167.  Use  as  green  manure  and  forage.  —  Rye  holds 
an  important  place  as  a  green  manure  crop.  Its  hardi- 
ness and  ability  to  grow  upon  poor  soils  make  it  especially 
valuable  for  this  purpose,  since  it  grows  well  on  those  soils 
that  are  most  greatly  in  need  of  assistance.  Rye  is  also 
used  for  pasture  and  as  a  soiling  crop.  As  a  soiling  crop 
it  is  especially  valuable  for  early  spring  feeding.  While 
it  will  yield  the  largest  amount  of  green  feed  if  cut  when 
in  full  head,  it  will  yield  a  very  fair  amount  of  palatable 
forage  if  cut  earlier.  As  a  pasture  crop,  it  is  available 
both  in  the  fall  and  spring.  If  seeded  rather  early  in  the 
fall,  usually  it  may  be  pastured  for  some  time  in  the 
fall  and  again  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  spring,  without 
materially  reducing  the  yield  of  grain.  Sometimes  the 
crop  is  sown  especially  for  pasture  during  the  early  part 
of  the  year,  and  is  plowed  up  in  time  for  seeding  a  crop 
of  late  potatoes  or  some  other  late  crop.  It  may  also 
be  pastured  for  several  weeks  in  the  spring  and  plowed 
under  in  time  for  corn.  Rye  straw  is  of  little  use  as 


180 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


feed,  but  is  highly  prized  for  use  as  bedding.  Much  of 
the  straw  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  baskets, 
boxes,  hats,  mats,  and  other  similar  articles. 


FIG.  64.  —  Plowing  under  rye  for  green  manure. 
PRODUCTION  AND  ADAPTATION 

168.  Production.  —  The  world's  annual  production 
of  rye  for  the  five  years  1907-1911  was  approximately 
1500  million  bushels,  being  slightly  greater  than  that  of 
barley,  and  slightly  less  than  one-half  that  of  wheat, 
and  less  than  one-half  that  of  oats  for  the  same  time. 
Of  the  world's  crop,  about  one-half  was  produced  in  Euro- 
pean Russia  and  about  one-fourth  in  Germany.  The 
production  of  rye  slightly  exceeds  that  of  wheat  in  Russia, 
while  in  Germany  over  three  times  as  much  rye  is  pro- 
duced as  wheat.  The  other  countries  producing  com- 
paratively large  amounts  are  Austria-Hungary,  Australia, 


RYE  181 

France,  Spain,  and  Sweden.  Some  rye  is  produced  in  the 
other  European  countries,  but  the  amount  is  small  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  countries  named  above.  In 
the  United  States  the  rye  is  exceeded  in  value  by  all 
the  other  cereals.  Of  the  world's  production  for  the 
five  years  1907-1911  the  United  States  produced  but 
31  million  bushels.  Of  this  amount  almost  50  per  cent 
was  produced  in  the  three  states,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin, 
and  Michigan.  Other  states  producing  comparatively 
large  amounts  are  Minnesota,  New  York,  Nebraska,  and 
Illinois.  While  rye  is  grown  in  almost  every  state,  it 
is  of  little  importance  as  a  grain  crop  in  all  excepting  those 
named  above.  In  some  states  rye  is  grown  more  for 
green  manure  and  for  pasture  than  for  grain,  and  is  there- 
fore not  included  in  the  above  consideration.  The  yield 
per  acre  in  the  United  States  for  the  ten  years  1902  to 
1911  was  15.9  bushels.  The  yield  per  acre  during  the 
same  period  in  Russia  was  approximately  12  bushels, 
in  Germany,  26.5  bushels,  and  in  Austria-Hungary,  20 
bushels. 

169.  Adaptation.  —  Rye  is  adapted  to  a  wide  climatic 
range.  It  is  more  hardy  than  wheat  and  will  stand  more 
severe  winters,  so  it  may  be  grown  farther  north.  It 
may  also  be  grown  in  the  South,  and  seems  to  be  little 
affected  by  warm  weather.  Rye  may  be  grown  success- 
fully on  almost  all  types  of  soil,  being  especially  adapted 
to  light,  sandy  soils.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  grain  of 
poverty  because  it  can  be  grown  on  soils  too  poor,  or  where 
the  climate  is  too  severe,  to  grow  the  other  cereal  crops 
successfully.  Because  of  its  ability  to  grow  on  poor 
soils,  fields  of  fertile  soil  are  usually  reserved  for  the  other 
cereals,  and  rye  is  grown  on  the  poorer  and  less  desirable 
ground.  While  rye  grows  fairly  well  on  poor  soils,  much 


182  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

larger  yields  may  be  obtained  on  fertile  soils,  and  it  will 
respond  well  to  fertilization  on  poor  soils. 


FIG.  65.  —  Rye  seeded  in  corn  at   the  last  cultivation  for  use  as  fall 
pasture  and  green  manure. 


METHODS   OF   CULTURE 

170.  Seeding.  —  The  cultural  methods  for  rye  are  very 
similar  to  those  described  for  wheat,  and  need  not  be 
repeated  again.  Rye  may  be  seeded  somewhat  earlier 
than  wheat,  as  it  is  less  troubled  by  the  Hessian  fly. 
It  is  desirable  to  seed  rather  early  if  the  crop  is  to  be 
pastured  in  the  fall.  It  may  be  seeded  in  the  standing 
corn  before  cutting,  or  the  seeding  may  be  delayed  until 
after  the  corn  is  in  the  shock.  Sometimes  rye  is  seeded 
in  the  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation.  However, 
usually  not  much  is  gained  by  seeding  as  early  as  this, 
since  the  plant  will  make  but  little  growth  until  the  corn 
ripens.  The  usual  rate  of  seeding  is  from  1.5  to  2  bushels 
per  acre. 


RYE  183 

171.  Fungous  diseases  and  insect  enemies.  —  The  most 
common  as  well  as  the  most  harmful  fungous  disease  of  rye  is 
ergot.  The  spores  of  ergot  enter  the  ovule  when  the  plant  is  in 
bloom,  gradually  develop,  replacing  the  ovule,  and  when  mature, 
the  growth  from  them  is  several  times  longer  than  the  seed. 
The  decrease  in  yield  of  grain  due  to  ergot  is  slight,  the  chief 
injury  from  it  being  the  ill  effects  produced  on  live  stock  that 
consume  grain  infested  with  it.  The  only  remedy  is  to  remove 
from  the  field  before  cutting  the  heads  that  are  affected  by  it. 
Many  of  the  grasses  and  occasionally  wheat  are  also  affected  by 
ergot.  Rye  is  less  seriously  troubled  with  insects  than  wheat, 
and  little  or  no  difficulty  is  usually  experienced  with  them. 


CHAPTER  IX 
RICE.    BUCKWHEAT 

RICE 

RICE  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  cultivated  cereals  and  has 
held  an  important  place  in  the  dietary  of  the  Chinese 
nation  from  time  immemorial.  For  thousands  of  years 
before  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era  and  continuing  down 
to  the  present  day,  rice  has  been  the  staple  article  of  food 
for  the  people  of  China.  It  is  probable  that  China  is 
its  original  home,  and  from  there  it  was  carried  into 
Japan  and  India,  and  later,  in  the  fifteenth  century  A.D.,  it 
was  introduced  into  southern  Europe.  Its  first  introduc- 
tion into  the  United  States  was  in  the  Virginia  colony  in 
1647,  when  it  was  brought  into  South  Carolina.  From 
this  time  on  it  has  been  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  United 
States. 

172.  Botanical  characters.  —  Rice,  Oryza  sativa,  is  one 
of  the  members  of  the  great  grass  family,  grown  for  its 
grain.  It  is  closely  related  to  wild  rice,  another  species 
of  the  same  genus,  which  grows  wild  in  the  tropical 
regions  of  both  hemispheres.  It  is  also  a  near  relative 
of  Canadian  rice,  a  wild  species  that  grows  in  rocky  places 
throughout  North  America,  and  one  which  was  used  exten- 
sively by  the  Indians  as  food.  Rice  is  an  annual,  with  a 
shallow,  fibrous  root  system,  growing  from  2  to  6  feet 
in  height,  the  average  height  being  from  4  to  5  feet. 

184 


RICE 


185 


Like  other  cereals,  it  stools  or  tillers  abundantly  under 
favorable  conditions.  The  seeds  are  borne  in  a  loose  head 
or  panicle,  somewhat  more  compressed  than  that  of  oats. 
The  spikelets  are  one-flowered  and  attached  to  the  branches 
of  the  panicles  with  a  short  pedicel. 
The  outer  glumes  are  short  scales 
or  bristles,  and  the  flowering  glume 
and  palea,  varying  in  color  from  light 
to  dark  yellow  or  brown,  tightly 
envelop  the  kernel  which  remains 
attached  when  the  grain  is  thrashed. 
The  flowering  glume  sometimes 
bears  an  awn.  When  the  glumes 
are  removed,  the  kernel  is  slightly 
furrowed,  is  hard  and  vitreous,  and 
white  in  color.  There  are  two  gen- 
eral types  of  rice  ;  namely,  the  low- 
land and  the  upland.  The  lowland 
rice  is  grown  in  low,  level  fields 
which  can  be  irrigated  from  rivers 
or  lakes.  The  upland  rice  is  grown 
without  irrigation  as  corn  or  cotton 
is  grown.  Almost  all  of  the  rice 
grown  in  this  country  is  of  the  low- 
land type. 

173.  Uses. — It  is  a  difficult  task 
to  tell  the  story  of  the  role  that 
rice  has  played  in  the  dietary  of 
the  race.  For  centuries  it  has  been  the  "staff  of  life  "  to  the 
people  of  southern  Asia  and  to-day  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant starchy  foods  of  all  civilized  nations.  The  United 
States,  while  producing  a  larger  amount,  finds  it  necessary 
to  import  about  200  million  pounds  yearly  to  meet  the  de- 


FlG. 


66.  —  A    panicle 
rice. 


of 


186  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

mands  within  her  borders.  In  China,  Japan,  and  other 
Oriental  countries  rice  is  the  chief  food  of  the  people,  and 
is  supplemented  with  seeds  of  millets,  sorghums,  and 
soy  beans.  The  dietary  for  the  average  citizen  of  these 
countries  is,  therefore,  quite  different  from  that  of  the 
citizens  of  our  country.  When  rice  is  thrashed,  the  hulls 
or  glumes  remain  on  the  kernel,  but  before  it  is  placed 
on  the  market  they  are  removed,  and  in  this  country  the 
kernels  are  polished  by  special  machines  to  give  them  the 
glossy  appearance  demanded  by  our  trade.  In  polishing 
the  kernels,  much  of  the  food  value  is  lost  because  in  the 
process  the  germ,  which  contains  the  most  of  the  oil,  is 
removed.  The  by-products  of  rice  are  the  hulls,  which 
are  of  little  value,  and  the  bran  or  rice  polish,  which  is  of 
considerable  value  as  a  stock  food.  The  straw  is  not 
palatable  and  is  of  little  use  for  stock  food  or  for  any  pur- 
pose other  than  for  fertilizer. 

PRODUCTION   AND   DISTRIBUTION 

174.  The  world's  crop.  —  In  the  tropical  and  semi- 
tropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  rice  is  a  very  impor- 
tant crop,  the  total  annual  production  for  the  world  being 
approximately  150  billion  pounds.  Of  this  amount  Asia 
produces  about  135  billion  pounds.  The  principal  rice- 
producing  countries  of  Asia  are  India,  with  an  annual 
production  of  80  billion  pounds,  China,  with  40  billion, 
Japan,  16  billion,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  producing 
800  million  pounds.  Europe  produces  about  1  billion 
pounds  annually,  Italy  and  Spain  producing  by  far  the 
bulk  of  this  crop.  South  America,  principally  Brazil 
and  British  Guiana  and  Peru,  have  an  annual  production 
of  approximately  400  million  pounds.  The  United  States 
has  an  annual  production  of  about  700  million  pounds. 


RICE  187 

Of  this  amount,  Louisiana  produces  over  one-half,  Texas, 
about  one-third,  Arkansas,  more  than  one-fifth,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  total  crop  of  this  country  being  produced  in 
comparatively  small  acreage  of  the  remaining  Gulf  States 
and  California.  The  rice  industry  in  the  United  States 
started  with  small  acreages  in  South  Carolina  in  colonial 
days,  and  later  it  was  introduced  and  grown  in  a  small 
way  in  Georgia.  These  two  states  produced  the  bulk 
of  this  crop  until  after  the  Civil  War.  After  the  war,  the 
rice  industry  declined  in  these  states,  but  the  acreage 
increased  in  the  Southern  States  along  the  Mississippi, 
which  up  to  this  time  had  produced  but  little.  Portions 
of  these  states,  on  account  of  their  location  in  relation  to 
rivers  and  the  presence  of  good  wells,  are  well  adapted  to 
the  growing  of  rice,  and  the  industry  has  developed  rapidly 
within  the  past  two  decades. 

The  average  yield  of  rice  per  acre  in  the  United  States 
is  about  32  bushels  of  rough  rice,  weighing  45  pounds  per 
bushel,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  1000  pounds  of  cleaned 
or  hulled  rice.  The  average  price  per  bushel  received  by 
the  grower  is  about  75  cents,  varying  of  course  from  year 
to  year,  depending  upon  the  demands  and  the  abundance 
of  foreign-grown  product  on  the  market.  The  value  of 
the  rice  crop  in  the  United  States  is,  in  round  numbers, 
approximately  17  million  dollars. 

ADAPTATION   AND    CULTURAL   METHODS 

175.  Adaptation.  —  Rice  is  a  tropical  or  semi-tropical 
plant,  and  requires  a  long,  hot  growing  season,  with  moist, 
humid  climate.  It  is  grown  therefore  only  in  low-lying 
regions,  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture  and  long 
growing  season.  Almost  all  of  the  rice  is  grown  on  soils 
that  can  be  supplied  with  water  by  irrigation.  Soils 


188  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

that  can  be  irrigated  and  drained  so  as  to  quickly  remove 
the  water  when  desired,  and  that  become  firm  after  drain- 
ing, so  that  machinery  and  animals  can  pass  over  them,  are 
best  adapted  to  rice  culture.  Low-lying  fields  along  rivers 
and  near  lakes  in  tropical  or  semi-tropical  regions  are  by 
virtue  of  their  location  well  adapted  to  rice  culture.  The 
upland  types  of  rice  grown  on  non-irrigated  lands  may  be 
grown  upon  any  soil  that  will  grow  corn  or  cotton. 

176.    Cultural   methods.  —  In  the   culture  of  lowland 
varieties  of  rice,  the  field  is  plowed  either  in  the  spring  or 


FIG.  67.  —  Harvesting  rice  in  Arkansas. 

fall  and  worked  down  into  a  fine  seed  bed.  The  seed  may 
be  sown  broadcast  or  drilled  in  with  a  grain  drill.  The 
grain  drill  gives  better  results,  since  the  seed  can  be  placed 
at  a  uniform  depth  in  the  soil,  which  favors  uniform  germi- 
nation and  growth.  From  one  to  two  bushels  of  seed  are 
required  per  acre.  Seeding  is  done  any  time  from  the 
middle  of  April  to  the  last  of  May.  The  growing  season 
is  long,  and  if  late  seeding  is  practiced,  the  harvesting  is 
delayed  until  late  fall.  Some  growers  begin  the  seeding 
early  and  extend  the  operation  for  some  time,  in  order 
that  a  larger  acreage  may  be  grown  and  harvested  with 


RICE.      BUCKWHEAT  189 

a  minimum  of  equipment.  When  the  rice  plants  are 
seven  or  eight  inches  high,  the  field  is  flooded  with  water 
to  a  depth  of  four  to  six  inches.  The  flood  water  is  main- 
tained over  the  field  until  the  grain  is  in  the  dough  stage, 
when  it  is  drained  off  to  allow  the  soil  to  dry  sufficiently 
to  bear  up  the  harvesting  machinery.  The  crop  is  usu- 
ally cut  with  a  grain  binder,  the  grain  being  handled  in 
the  same  manner  as  any  small  grain  crop.  The  rice  is 
thrashed  with  an  ordinary  thrasher  and  stored  in  bags  or 
barrels  holding  162  pounds.  The  grower  usually  reckons 
his  crops  by  barrels  rather  than  by  bushels,  as  is  the  cus- 
tom with  wheat  or  oats. 

BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat  has  been  cultivated  for  many  centuries  in 
England  and  in  European  countries,  where  it  has  furnished 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  bread  flour  of  the  poor 
classes  of  people.  It  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  colonial  times  and  for  many  years  was  an  im- 
portant article  of  diet  in  the  New  England  and  Central 
States.  Buckwheat  gets  its  name  from  the  German  Buch- 
weizen,  which  means  beechwheat.  It  was  called  beech- 
wheat  by  the  Germans  because  of  the  resemblance  of  the 
grains  to  beechnuts. 

177.  Description.  —  Buckwheat,  Fagopyrum  esculen- 
tum,  belongs  to  the  Polygonaceae,  or  dock  family,  which 
includes  in  its  membership  such  troublesome  weeds  as 
the  dock,  sorrel,  and  smartweed.  Buckwheat,  therefore, 
is  not  a  true  cereal,  but  because  of  its  similar  cultural 
requirements  and  adaptation,  it  is  usually  classed  with 
them.  Buckwheat  in  the  character  of  its  root  system  is 
unlike  the  cereals  in  that  it  has  a  tap  root.  The  tap  root 
extends  down  rather  deeply  into  the  soil,  and  from  the  upper 


190 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


portion  of  it  several  branches  are  given  off.  The  total 
root  development  as  compared  with  that  of  the  cereals 
is  not  large.  The  plant  produces  but  one  stem  from 
each  seed,  and  does  not  thicken  up  the  stand  by  tillering 
as  do  the  cereals.  It  has  other  means,  however,  of 

adapting  itself  to  the 
environment.  The 
main  stem  branches 
more  or  less  freely, 
depending  upon  the 
thickness  of  planting 
and  other  environ- 
mental factors.  The 
stems  grow  from  two 
to  five  feet  in  height, 
the  average  probably 
being  about  three. 
The  leaves  are  ar- 
ranged alternately, 
and  the  petioles  vary 
in  length  from  ex- 

FIG.  68. -Buckwheat  in  bloom.  tremely  short   to   as 

much  as  four  inches 

or  more.  The  leaves  are  heart-shaped,  somewhat  longer 
than  they  are  broad,  and  vary  in  length  from  two  to 
four  inches. 

The  flowers  are  borne  at  the  top  of  the  stem  upon 
peduncles  that  grow  out  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The 
flowers  are  peculiar  in  that  they  have  no  petals.  The 
sepals  of  the  calyx,  however,  are  rather  large  and  have  the 
appearance  of  petals.  The  color  of  the  flowers  is  pinkish 
white,  tinged  with  red.  They  appear  long  before  the  plant 
is  full-grown,  and  they  continue  to  appear  until  the 


BUCKWHEAT  191 

plant  is  killed  by  frost.  The  plant  at  harvest,  therefore, 
may  contain  both  flowers  and  mature  seeds.  A  field  of 
buckwheat  in  bloom  is  a  beautiful  sight  and  furnishes 
pasture  for  all  sorts  of  bees  and  nectar-loving  insects. 

The  mature  seed  is  three-angled,  inclosed  in  hull  of 
gray  or  brown  color,  and  varies  in  size  with  the  variety, 
usually  being  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  along  each 
edge.  The  legal  weight  per  bushel  in  most  states  is  48 
pounds. 

178.  Uses.  —  Buckwheat  cakes  have  long  been  accorded 
a  place  of  high  favor  on  the  breakfast  menu  of  winter  days. 
Formerly  their  excellence  was  known  only  to  the  rural 
population,  but  now  they  have  won  a  place  of  favor 
on  the  tables  of  the  city   dwellers.     Almost  all  of  the 
buckwheat   produced  is  used  in  the  making  of  buck- 
wheat flour,  which  now  commands  a  high  price  on  the 
market.       Buckwheat   middlings,   a  by-product   of    the 
milling  of   the  flour,  are  highly   prized  for  stock  food. 
The  straw,   if  protected    from    the  weather,   is  readily 
eaten  by  live  stock. 

179.  Production.  —  The  buckwheat  crop  in  the  United 
States  for  the  ten  years  1903-1912  shows  an  annual  average 
production  of  approximately  16  million  bushels.     Only 
about  800  thousand  acres  are  devoted  to  this  crop,  almost 
all  of  which  are  in  the  northeast  quarter  of  the  United 
States,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  producing  in  1912 
over  80  per  cent  of  the  total  crop.     Other  states  producing 
relatively  large  amounts  are,  Michigan,  with   1   million 
bushels,    West    Virginia,    with    880    thousand    bushels, 
Virginia,  516  thousand,  Ohio,  410  thousand,  Wisconsin,  290 
thousand,  and  Maryland,  210  thousand  bushels.     Other 
states  having  small  acreages  of  buckwheat  are  the  New 
England  States,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Minnesota,  and  Iowa. 


192  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

The  yield  per  acre  varies  from  10  to  50  bushels,  the 
average  yield  being  probably  about  20  bushels.  The 
average  farm  value  of  buckwheat  per  bushel  for  the  past 
ten  years  has  been  about  60  cents. 

180.  Cultural  methods.  —  Buckwheat  is  best  adapted 
to  a  cool,  moist  climate.     High  temperature  and  excessive 
rainfall  during  the  later  period  of  growth  is  disastrous 
to  the  crop,  as  such  weather  blasts  the  flowers.     Buckwheat 
will  grow  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  and  is  especially  well 
adapted  to  those  which  are  thin  and  light.     Most  fre- 
quently it  is  grown  on  soils  too  poor  or  rough  to  produce 
good  yields  of  other  crops.     The  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed  usually  is  given  little  attention,  but  experience  has 
shown  that  the  crop  will  respond  to  more  considerate 
treatment  with  sufficient  increase  of  yield  to  more  than 
compensate   for  the   extra  labor.     The   land  is  usually 
plowed  as  for  the  cereals,  but  too  frequently  the  plowing 
is  delayed  until  late  in  the  season,  which  results  in  a  seed 
bed    of    poor    physical    condition.     Early    plowing    and 
proper  preparation  to  secure  a  firm,  well-pulverized  seed 
bed  is  most  likely  to  result  in  a  profitable  yield. 

181.  Seeding.  —  Buckwheat  will  mature  in  a  shorter 
season  than  any  of  the  other  grain  crops.     If  favorable 
weather  prevails,  it  may  be  harvested  in  8  to  12  weeks  after 
seeding.     The  seeding  is  usually  done  in  June  or  early 
July,  and  it  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  put  in  with  the  grain 
drill.     The  grain  drill  is  to  be  recommended,  as  by  its  use 
a  more  uniform  rate  of  seeding  is  secured.     The  rate  of 
seeding  varies  from  3  to  5  pecks  per  acre. 

182.  Harvesting.  —  The  crop  should  be  cut  before  the 
first  heavy  frost.     In  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  almost 
all  of  the  crop  is  cut  with  the  grain  binder,  a  hand  cradle, 
or  a  self-rake.     It  is  allowed  to  dry  in  the  swath  for  a  few 


BUCKWHEAT  193 

days  before  it  is  set  up  in  the  shock.  Thrashing  may  be 
done  with  the  grain  thrasher,  but  much  of  the  crop  in 
this  country  is  thrashed  with  the  flail.  The  most  com- 
mon varieties  of  buckwheat  are  Japanese  and  Silver 
Hull. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  PERENNIAL  GRASSES.  — TIMOTHY,  BLUE- 
GRASS,  REDTOP 

TIMOTHY 

THE  grass  timothy  derives  its  most  common  name  from 
Timothy  Hanson  of  Maryland,  who  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced it  from  England  in  1720.  It  is  also  known  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  particularly  in  New  England,  as 
Herd's  grass.  This  name  comes  from  John  Herd,  who, 
it  is  said,  found  it  growing  wild  in  the  swamps  of  New 
Hampshire  earl}7-  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Because  of 
the  appearance  of  the  head,  the  grass  is  sometimes  called 
meadow  cat's  tail.  Whether  Herd  or  Hanson  should 
have  the  credit  for  discovering  the  adaptability  of  this 
grass  to  American  agriculture  cannot  be  determined.  Both 
of  them  perhaps  deserve  particular  credit  for  calling  atten- 
tion to  its  value  and  assisting  in  its  distribution.  Timothy 
has  been  cultivated  in  this  country  for  two  centuries  and 
is  by  far  the  most  important  hay  grass,  furnishing  almost 
all  of  the  hay  found  on  the  eastern  markets.  It  is  also 
of  considerable  importance  in  Europe,  but  it  does  not 
attain  there  the  importance  that  it  does  in  this  country. 

183.  Description.  —  Timothy,  Phleum  pratense,  is  a 
perennial  and  has  the  characteristic  fibrous  root  system 
of  the  members  of  the  grass  family.  Compared  with 
other  forage  grasses,  it  may  be  said  to  be  deep  rooted. 

194 


THE  PERENNIAL   GRASSES 


195 


Underground  root  stalks  or  stolons  are  common,  although 
many  plants  do  not  have  them.  The  culms  or  stems  are 
usually  erect.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are  decumbent 
at  the  base.  Several  stems  usually  are  produced  from 
one  root  system.  This  is  due  to  the  production  of  tillers 
from  the  nodes  near  the  ground,  similar 
to  the  stooling  of  the  cereals.  When  the 
plant  is  not  crowded,  the  tillers  in  turn 
produce  several  stems,  and  when  grow- 
ing under  field  conditions  ordinarily  from 
6  to  15  stems  are  produced  by  a  single 
plant.  The  culms  vary  from  2  to  5  feet 
in  height,  depending  upon  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  and  upon  other  factors  affect- 
ing growth.  The  node  at  the  base  of  the 
culm  is  often  enlarged  into  a  tuber. 
This  condition  is  common  when  the 
plant  is  growing  on  dry  soils.  When 
growing  in  wet  or  moist  lands,  the 
tuber  is  small,  or  in  some  cases  not 
present  at  all.  This  character  distin- 
guishes timothy  from  the  other  forage 
grasses. 

The  leaves  number  from  2  to  8  and 
have  a  long  sheath  and  blade  in  com-    FlG-  69.  — Timothy 

•  ,1,1  f       ,1  in  bloom. 

panson  with  those  of  other  grasses. 
The  leaf  blade  is  flat  and  rather  rough,  and  varies  with 
different  plants  in  length  and  width.  Timothy,  when 
compared  with  other  forage  grasses,  has  a  rather  high 
percentage  of  leaves  to  stems,  although  the  proportion 
may  vary  somewhat  with  individual  plants  or  strains  or 
with  the  thickness  of  the  stand,  thick  seeding  producing 
fine  stems  and  slightly  higher  percentage  of  leaves.  The 


196  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

inflorescence  carried  at  the  top  of  each  culm  is  a  spike. 
The  spike  or  head  varies  from  2  to  12  inches  in  length, 
the  most  common  forms  being  from  3  to  7  inches. 

The  spike  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  one-flowered 
spikelets.  The  compactness  of  their  arrangement  on 
the  rachis  varies  considerably.  When  compactly  arranged, 
the  spike  appears  full  and  rigid.  When  the  spikelets  are 
farther  apart,  it  has  a  slender  appearance. 

The  appearance  of  timothy  seed  is  unlike  that  of  any 
other  cultivated  grass,  and  it  is  easily  identified.  This  fact 
renders  adulteration  difficult.  The  seed  after  thrashing  is 
usually  inclosed  in  the  flowering  glume  and  palea,  al- 
though much  of  it,  sometimes  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  is 
freed  from  the  glume  during  the  operation  and  appears 
naked.  The  legal  weight  per  bushel  in  the  United  States 
is  45  pounds. 

184.  Distribution  and  adaptation.  —  Timothy  may  be 
found  growing  throughout  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
world.  As  a  cultivated  grass,  it  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  England  and  in  Europe.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  extensively  grown  in  that  section  of  the  country  north 
of  a  line  drawn  from  the  southern  boundary  of  Maryland, 
and  east  of  the  Missouri  River.  Within  this  section, 
known  as  the  timothy  belt,  no  other  grass  rivals  it  as  a 
hay  plant,  and  nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  it  so  well 
and  so  favorably  known.  Its  importance  in  this  section 
makes  it  the  most  important  hay  grass  in  the  United  States. 
New  York  produces  the  greatest  amount  of  timothy  hay, 
while  Pennsylvania,  Iowa,  Ohio,  and  Indiana  follow  closely 
in  its  production.  So  important  is  timothy  hay  that, 
until  recently,  it  has  been  the  only  hay  on  which  there  has 
been  a  market  quotation.  Much  of  the  hay  produced  in 
this  section  is  shipped  to  the  large  cities,  to  those  within 


THE  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  197 

and  also  those  without  the  timothy  belt,  and  it  is  the 
market  hay  in  the  cities  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States.  Timothy  is  also  grown  quite  extensively  in  many 
of  the  mountain  valleys  of  the  far  West,  especially  in  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon.  Timothy  grows  best  on  moist  clay  or 
loam  soils,  and  is  not  well  adapted  to  loose  or  sandy  soils. 
It  does  not  grow  well  in  the  South,  and  a  stand  there 
rarely  lasts  over  one  year. 

185.  Cultural  methods.  —  There  are  several  methods 
of  seeding  timothy  in  common  practice.  The  most  com- 
mon method  is  that  of  seeding  it  with  wheat,  either  in  the 
fall  with  winter  wheat,  or  in  the  spring.  When  seeded 
in  the  fall,  the  seed  may  be  spread  either  in  front  of  or 
behind  the  drill  hoes.  Usually  the  spreading  of  the  seed 
in  front  of  the  drill  hoes  gives  the  best  results.  However, 
if  favorable  weather  prevails  and  soil  conditions  are  good, 
seeding  behind  the  drill  hoes  may  give  equally  good 
results.  Seeding  in  the  fall  with  wheat  gives  the  timothy 
an  opportunity  to  become  well  established  before  winter, 
and  usually  a  good  stand  is  secured  by  following  this  prac- 
tice. If  it  is  desired  to  grow  mixed  hay,  that  is,  timothy 
and  clover  together,  the  clover  may  be  seeded  in  the  spring, 
early  enough  so  that  the  seed  will  be  covered  by  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing.  Another  method  of  seeding  in 
common  practice  is  that  of  seeding  both  timothy  and 
clover  in  the  spring.  Usually  the  seed  is  mixed  in  the 
proportion  desired  and  then  sown  together.  When  this 
is  done,  the  seeding  may  be  done  early  in  the  spring 
so  that  freezing  and  thawing  will  cover  the  seed,  or  it 
may  be  delayed  until  the  ground  is  dry,  and  in  that 
case  the  seed  should  be  covered  with  a  light  harrow. 
Good  results  are  obtained  by  either  method.  Some 
growers  object  to  covering  the  seed  with  the  harrow,  con- 


198  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

tending  that  the  latter  will  injure  the  wheat.  Experience 
and  experiments,  however,  show  that  instead  of  injuring 
the  wheat,  harrowing  often  increases  the  yield  a  few 
bushels  per  acre.  Timothy  may  be  seeded  alone  or  with 
clover  in  the  spring  with  oats.  Oats,  however,  on  account 
of  the  dense  shade  produced  by  their  broad  leaves,  do  not 
provide  as  favorable  conditions  for  the  growth  of  timothy 
and  clover  as  do  wheat  or  rye.  Timothy  may  also  be 
seeded  alone,  that  is,  without  a  nurse  crop.  When  seeded 
alone,  the  most  favorable  time  is  in  late  summer  or  early 
fall.  With  a  well-prepared  seed  bed,  seeding  at  this  time 
usually  gives  an  excellent  stand,  which  may  be  expected 
to  produce  a  good  crop  of  hay  the  next  year.  When 
seeded  with  a  nurse  crop,  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring, 
no  hay  may  usually  be  expected  until  the  next  season. 
When  seeded  alone,  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  the  usual 
application.  Experiments  carried  on  by  several  stations 
indicate  that  a  heavier  rate  of  seeding  does  not  insure  an 
increase  in  yield  of  hay.  When  seeded  with  clover,  8  or 
9  pounds  of  timothy  with  7  or  8  pounds  of  red  clover  and 
2  pounds  of  alsike  per  acre  make  a  desirable  mixture. 

186.  Cutting  for  hay.  —  The  stage  of  growth  at  which 
timothy  is  cut  for  hay  varies  in  different  localities,  and 
even  among  different  farmers  in  the  same  locality.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  time  of  cutting  influences,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  hay.  At 
the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  timothy  was  cut  at 
five  different  stages  of  growth.  The  stages  at  which  the 
cutting  was  made  were  :  (1)  plant  in  full  head ;  (2)  in  full 
bloom ;  (3)  seeds  formed,  bloom  shed ;  (4)  seeds  in  dough 
stage ;  (5)  seeds  ripe.  It  was  found  that  the  time  of 
cutting  influenced  the  yield,  the  digestibility,  and  palata- 
bility  of  the  hay.  It  also  influenced  to  some  extent  the  con- 


THE  PERENNIAL   GRASSES 


199 


venience  of  harvesting  and  the  permanency  of  the  stand. 
Results  of  the  experiments  indicate  that  the  highest  yield 
of  hay  of  the  best  quality  is  obtained  when  the  grass  is 
cut  between  the  time  when  it  is  in  full  bloom  and  the 
stage  at  which  the  seeds  are  just  formed.  While  the  later 
cuttings  are  more  easily  cured  in  the  field,  due  to  the  fact 


FIG.  70.  —  Cutting  timothy  hay. 

that  they  contain  much  less  water  than  the  earlier  cuttings, 
the  hay  is  not  of  as  good  quality  as  the  earlier  cuttings. 
Late  cutting  is  favorable  for  the  storing  up  of  nutrients 
in  the  tuber  at  the  base  of  the  culm,  and  therefore  more 
favorable  for  a  permanent  stand.  Timothy  is  not  a  good 
pasture  grass.  The  sod  does  not  stand  tramping  well, 
and  close  grazing  materially  lowers  the  yield  of  succeeding 
crops.  Sometimes  timothy  is  grown  for  seed  rather  than 


200 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


for  hay.  When  grown  for  seed,  it  should  not  be  seeded 
so  thickly  as  for  hay,  usually  only  nine  or  ten  pounds  per 
acre  being  used.  The  crop  is  cut  with  a  grain  binder  or 
with  a  self -rake,  and  the  bundles  are  either  set  up  in  shocks 
or  hauled  to  the  barn.  The  yield  of  seed  per  acre  varies 


FIG.  71. 


Plots  of  timothy  at    Cornell    University,  showing  variation 
in  manner  of  growth. 


from  3  to  20  bushels,  the  average  probably  being  about 
10  bushels.  After  thrashing,  the  straw  is  of  some  value  as 
feed,  though  it  is  greatly  inferior  to  timothy  hay  when 
cut  at  the  proper  time. 

187.  Improvement  of  timothy.  —  Much  has  been  ac- 
complished by  systematic  selection  in  the  improvement 
of  the  small  grains,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred 


THE  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  201 

to  many  growers  that  forage  grasses  may  be  improved 
by  the  same  means.  The  Cornell  Experiment  Station  is 
one  of  the  few  that  has  engaged  in  this  work.  The  results 
of  their  experiments  show  that  much  is  possible  by  selec- 
tion, and  it  will  be  only  a  short  time  probably  until  seed 
of  heavy  yielding  strains  or  varieties  of  timothy  may  be 
purchased  on  the  market.  By  selecting  desirable  plants 
and  propagating  them,  the  yield  and  quality  of  the  grass 
has  been  greatly  increased  above  that  of  the  average. 

KENTUCKY   BLUE-GRASS 

The  name  Kentucky  blue-grass  is  given  to  this  common 
and  useful  grass,  not  because  it  is  a  native  of  Kentucky, 
but  because  nowhere  else  does  it  grow  so  luxuriantly 
and  nowhere  else  is  it  held  in  such  high  esteem.  In  some 
places  it  is  called  June-grass  because  it  makes  its  best 
growth  during  this  month.  In  England,  where  it  is  quite 
common,  it  is  called  smooth-stalked  meadow-grass.  In 
some  places,  too,  it  is  called  green-grass,  while  in  other 
localities  it  is  called  simply  blue-grass. 

188.  Description.  —  Kentucky  blue-grass,  Poa  pra- 
tensis,  is  a  strong  perennial.  Unlike  most  grasses,  it 
becomes  more  productive  as  the  years  go  by,  provided  it 
is  favored  with  good  care.  The  roots  of  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  do  not  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil  and  it  is  easily 
affected  by  drought.  The  plant  is  provided  with  numer- 
ous creeping  underground  root  stalks,  which  give  rise  to 
new  plants,  and  it  is  able  thus  to  thicken  up  a  thin  stand. 
The  underground  root  stalks  grow  so  vigorously  that  other 
grasses,  excepting  the  most  persistent  ones,  are  soon 
crowded  out.  A  good  blue-grass  sod  is  firm  and  tough 
and  stands  tramping  and  grazing  well.  The  culms  are 
comparatively  few  in  number  and  grow  from  a  few  inches 


202 


FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 


to  three  and  one-half  feet  in  height,  depending  upon  the 
soil.  They  are  quite  commonly  from  15  to  24  inches  high. 
The  culms  of  blue-grass  are  round  and  smooth,  and  the 
smooth  character  gives  to  it  the 
name  of  smooth-stalked  meadow- 
grass,  by  which  it  is  known  in 
England.  The  leaves  are  smooth, 
narrow,  and  bright  green  in  color. 
The  culm  leaves  are  few  in  num- 
ber and  from  3  to  6  inches  in 
length,  while  the  basal  leaves  grow 
in  abundance  and  are  much  longer 
than  the  culm  leaves,  usually  from 
1  to  2J  feet.  The  inflorescence  is 
an  open,  spreading,  branched 
panicle,  varying  from  3  to  9  inches 
in  length.  The  spikelets  are  larger 
and  fewer  in  number  than  those 
of  redtop,  and  contain  rom  3  to 
5  flowers.  The  panicle  during 
certain  periods  of  its  growth  is 
tinged  with  red,  giving  to  it  the 
appearance  of  redtop.  The  seeds 
remain  inclosed  in  the  glumes,  and 
as  they  come  from  the  thrasher 
contain  a  mixture  of  chaff  and 
weigh  but  14  pounds  per  bushel, 
which  is  the  legal  weight  in  most 
states.  Well-cleaned  seed  may 
weigh  as  much  as  25  pounds  per 
bushel.  The  seed  found  on  the  market  is  usually  very 
low  in  vitality,  which  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the 
method  of  harvesting  and  drying  the  seed. 


FIG.  72.  —  Kentucky  blue- 


THE  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  203 

189.  Distribution  and  adaptation.  —  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  is  probably  a  native  of  Europe,  and  although  no 
records  are  to  be  found,  it  was  probably  introduced  into 
America  many  years  ago.  It  is  said  that  the  early 
settlers  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky  looked  upon  it  as  a 
dangerous  weed,  and  prophesied  that  it  would  some  day 
drive  the  farmers  out  of  the  country.  How  great  would 
be  the  surprise  of  these  same  men,  could  they  but  see 
to-day  the  fine  pasture  it  makes,  and  learn  how  highly 
we  prize  Kentucky  blue-grass!  While  this  grass  may  be 
found  here  and  there  over  almost  all  of  the  United  States,  it 
is  cultivated  as  a  hay  and  pasture  grass  only  in  the  timothy 
region,  and  in  those  states  just  south  of  this  region.  In 
the  South  it  does  not  endure  the  hot  weather  and  is  soon 
killed  out.  Its  distribution  outside  of  the  timothy  region 
is  confined  largely  to  limestone  soil.  On  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  running  south  of  the  Ohio  River,  through  central 
Kentucky,  and  extending  to  the  middle  of  Tennessee,  blue- 
grass  is  found  at  its  best.  The  famous  blue-grass  region  of 
Kentucky  is  known  far  and  wide  for  its  famous  pastures. 
In  Virginia,  too,  fine  blue-grass  pastures  are  found  in  the 
fertile  limestone  valleys.  Blue-grass  is  the  basis  of  all 
permanent  pastures  and  lawn  mixtures  throughout  the 
corn  belt  states.  It  finds  its  greatest  field  of  usefulness 
in  that  section  of  the  country  west  of  the  New  England 
States  and  east  of  the  Missouri  River.  Here  it  holds 
the  same  position  as  a  pasture  grass  that  timothy  does  as  a 
hay  grass.  Blue-grass  grows  best  on  clay  or  clay  loam  soil, 
and  does  not  do  well  on  loose,  sandy  soil.  Being  a  shallow- 
rooted  plant,  it  requires  moist  soils,  but  does  not  thrive 
in  wet  soil.  It  is  easily  affected  by  drought  and  fails  to 
grow  during  dry  weather.  Blue-grass  is  sensitive  to  acid 
soils  and  does  not  grow  well  on  them  until  this  condition 


204  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

is  corrected  by  the  use  of  lime.  It  grows  best  on  the  lime- 
stone soils  of  the  corn  belt  states  and  in  the  blue-grass 
region  of  Kentucky,  which  is  underlain  with  limestone. 

190.  Uses  of  blue-grass.  —  As  a  hay  grass,  it  cannot 
compare  favorably  with  timothy,  either  in  yield  or  palata- 
bility.  The  short  stems  and  few  culm  leaves  hold  down 
the  yield  so  that  it  is  seldom  that  more  than  one-half  ton  of 
hay  is  secured  per  acre.  The  hay  is  dry  and  unpalatable, 
and  animals  do  not  relish  it.  Kentucky  blue-grass  is 
preeminently  a  pasture  and  lawn  grass.  As  a  pasture 
grass  in  the  corn  belt  states,  it  has  no  rival.  It  furnishes  a 
palatable  and  nutritious  pasture,  starts  early  in  the  spring, 
and  grows  late  into  the  fall.  It  makes  a  dense,  firm  sod 
that  stands  pasturing  well  and  becomes  more  dense  and 
productive  with  age.  There  are,  however,  two  serious 
objections  to  blue-grass  as  a  pasture  grass.  It  does  not 
furnish  pasture  during  the  dry,  hot  part  of  the  summer, 
and  it  requires  several  years  to  become  well  established. 
Its  desirable  qualities,  however,  so  far  outweigh  its 
defects,  that  there  is  no  danger  of  its  losing  favor.  As  a 
lawn  grass  in  the  blue-grass  section  it  has  no  rival.  It 
makes  a  beautiful,  dense  turf  that  improves  with  age  and 
when  supplied  with  water  during  the  summer,  retains  its 
beautiful  green  color  from  early  spring  until  late  fall. 

In  certain  sections  of  the  country,  the  seed  crop  is  im- 
portant. Almost  all  of  the  seed  used  in  the  United  States 
is  harvested  within  a  radius  of  40  miles  of  Lexington, 
Kentucky.  The  seed  is  harvested  either  by  hand  or  horse- 
drawn  machines.  The  harvester  most  commonly  used 
is  a  machine  run  by  horses  that  combs  or  strips  the  spikelets 
from  the  panicle  and  collects  them  in  a  bag.  The  machines 
are  wide  and  collect  the  seed  from  a  strip  15  to  25  feet  wide 
at  one  time.  The  stripping  begins  when  the  panicle  turns 


THE  PEEENNIAL   GRASSES  205 

yellow,  which,  in  central  Kentucky,  is  soon  after  the  first 
of  June.  After  the  seed  has  been  collected  it  is  put  into 
piles  or  long  ricks  to  cure.  The  low  vitality  of  much  of 
the  seed  on  the  market  is  due  to  the  heating  of  the  seed 
in  the  curing  process,  sometimes  reaching  a  very  high 
temperature.  Experiments  have  indicated  that  better 
methods  of  curing  yield  seed  with  a  good  vitality.  In  the 
purchase  of  blue-grass  seed,  it  is  important  that  the  per- 
centage of  germination  be  ascertained,  else  the  purchaser 
may  get  a  high  proportion  of  seed  that  will  not  grow. 

191.  Cultural  methods.  —  When  sowing  blue-grass  for 
pasture,  it  is  seldom  seeded  alone,  since  it  requires  two  or 
three  years  to  make  a  dense  sod.  It  is  usually  seeded  in 
combination  with  other  grasses  and  clovers,  which  will 
furnish  pasture  until  the  blue-grass  becomes  established, 
when  it  will  crowd  them  out  and  replace  them.  In  this 
way  pasture  may  be  had  soon  after  seeding  without  waiting 
for  the  blue-grass  to  become  established.  When  seeded 
alone,  40  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  considered  a  full  seed- 
ing, although  if  the  seed  is  of  good  vitality,  half  this  amount 
is  enough.  When  seeded  with  other  grasses,  a  mixture 
of  10  pounds  of  blue-grass,  10  pounds  of  timothy,  3 
pounds  of  redtop,  2  pounds  of  meadow  fescue,  3  pounds 
of  alsike  clover,  and  2  pounds  of  white  clover  per  acre 
makes  a  desirable  combination.  White  clover  grows  well  with 
blue-grass  and  is  often  seen  with  it  in  permanent  pastures. 

When  seeded  alone,  it  is  well  to  sow  in  the  fall  with  a 
nurse  crop,  wheat  or  rye  being  desirable  for  this  purpose. 
When  seeded  in  combination  with  other  grasses,  the  mixture 
may  be  sown  in  the  fall,  or  the  grass  seed  only  may  be 
applied  at  this  time,  and  the  clover  added  early  in  the 
spring.  When  a  blue-grass  pasture  becomes  thin,  it  may 
be  renovated  without  plowing  it  up  by  disking  and  sowing 


206  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

a  mixture  of  clover  and  blue-grass  seed.  It  is  usually 
advisable  to  apply  barnyard  manure  or  commercial 
fertilizers  to  the  field  before  reseeding.  The  clover  will 
furnish  pasture  for  a  few  years,  during  which  time  the  blue- 
grass  will  make  rapid  growth  and  thicken  up  the  stand  by 
means  of  its  creeping  root  stalks. 

CANADA   BLUE-GRASS 

192.  Canada  blue-grass,  Poa  compressa,  is  sometimes  known 
as  wire-grass,    and    flat-stalked    meadow-grass.      It    is   closely 
related  to  Kentucky  blue-grass,  is  bluer  in  appearance,  and  in 
some  localities  goes   by  the   name  of    bluegrass.     It    may  be 
distinguished  from  Kentucky  blue-grass  by  its  flat  stems,  blue 
color,  and  closed  panicle.     The  grass  is  distributed  very  gener- 
ally over  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  region,  but  is  of  importance  only 
along  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  particularly 
in  New  York  State.     Canada  blue-grass  will  grow  under  more 
adverse  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  than  will  its  near  relative, 
Kentucky  blue-grass.     It  will  grow  well  on  acid  soils,  soils  of  a 
sandy  nature,  and  those  low  in  fertility.     It  is  therefore  useful 
in  localities  where'  Kentucky  blue-grass   does  not  thrive.     As 
hay  grass,  it  is  highly  prized  where  it  is  known.     Live  stock 
prefer  it  to  timothy,  but  it  does  not  yield  nearly  so  well.     It 
furnishes  good  pasture,  but  does  not  start  so  early  in  the  spring 
nor  does  it  grow  so  rapidly  as  Kentucky  blue-grass.     It  is  highly 
prized  as  a  lawn  grass,  and  makes  a  beautiful  sward  if  kept 
closely  mowed. 

REDTOP 

In  mid-summer  the  panicle  of  this  grass  has  a  reddish 
purple  color,  from  which  it  gets  its  common  name  of  red- 
top.  In  Pennsylvania  and  the  Southern  States  it  is  also 
known  as  Herd's  grass,  the  term  redtop  being  sometimes 
applied  to  some  of  the  other  members  of  the  same  genus 
with  the  characteristic  reddish  purple  panicles. 

193.  Description.  —  Redtop,  Agrostis  alba,  is  the  most 
varied  of  any  of  the  cultivated  grasses.     Some  forms  are 


THE  PERENNIAL   GRASSES 


207 


small  and  slender,  while  others  grow  strong  stems,  with 
coarse,  broad  leaves.  The  largest  forms  are  the  varieties 
used  for  hay  or  pasture.  Redtop  has  a  shallow  root 
system,  made  up  of  many  underground  root  stalks,  which 
form  a  firm,  dense  sod.  Be- 
cause of  the  numerous  stolons, 
it  is  a  valuable  grass  for  bind- 
ing soil  to  prevent  it  from  wash- 
ing. The  culms  vary  from  one 
to  four  feet  in  height,  and  are 
usually  erect,  though  they  are 
sometimes  decumbent.  The 
nodes  of  the  culms  take  root 
when  they  come  in  contact  with 
the  ground.  The  leaves  are  not 
as  numerous  as  those  of  timothy. 
The  inflorescence  is  an  open, 
much  branched  panicle,  and  the 
spikelets  are  small  and  contain 
but  one  flower.  During  the 
early  stages  of  growth  the  pan- 
icle is  contracted  and  green  in 
color,  but  as  the  plant  matures, 
the  panicle  expands  and  takes 
on  a  reddish  purple  color.  Red- 
top  bears  a  resemblance  to  blue- 
grass,  but  can  be  distinguished 
from  it  by  the  smaller  and  more  numerous  spikelets 
having  only  one  flower,  while  blue-grass  has  3  to  5 
flowers  per  spikelet.  Blue-grass  is  an  earlier  grass  and 
comes  into  full  bloom  about  six  weeks  before  redtop 
blooms.  Redtop  seed  varies  considerably  in  quality; 
as  it  comes  from  the  thrasher  it  contains  much  chaff  and 


FIG.  73.  —  Redtop. 


208  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

weighs  only  about   12  pounds  per  bushel.      Recleaned 
seed  weighs  about  35  pounds  per  bushel. 

194.  Adaptation  and  distribution.  —  Redtop  is  probably 
more  widely  distributed  than  any  other  cultivated  grass. 
It  will  grow  in  greatly  varying  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate.     It  is  hardy  in  the  North  and  thrives  in  the  warm 
climate  of  the  Southern  States.     While  redtop  is  grown  in 
almost  every  state  in  the  Union,  it  is  of  importance  only  in 
comparatively  few  places.     It  is  well  adapted  to  low,  wet, 
or  undrained  soils,  and  will  also  grow  on  soils  that  are  of 
acid  reaction.     It  is  well  adapted,  too,  to  heavy  clays. 
In  the  timothy  and  blue-grass  sections  and  also  in  New 
England,  it  is  used  in  pasture  and  meadow  mixtures.     It  is 
grown  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  the  Western  States 
where  the  soil  is  too  wet  for  other  grasses.     In  a  few  coun- 
ties of  southeastern  Illinois  and  adjacent  counties  across 
the  river  in  Kentucky,  it  is  an  important  crop.     In  this 
section  it  is  grown  for  the  seed.     In  the  South,  where  it  is 
known  as  Herd's  grass,  it  is  accorded  much  favor,  since 
it  is  one  of  the  few  grasses  that  will  remain  green  the  year 
around. 

195.  Uses.  —  As  a  hay  grass,  redtop  is  generally  looked 
upon  with   disfavor,   especially   in  the   timothy   region. 
It  is,  however,  next  to  timothy  the  most  important  hay 
grass  of  this  section.     When  hay  is  grown  for  the  market, 
redtop  is  especially  in  disfavor,  and  a  small  amount  mixed 
in  with  the  timothy  decreases  the  price  of  the  hay.     Chemi- 
cal analysis  shows  that  redtop  is  equal  if  not  better  than 
timothy  in  feeding  value.     Redtop  hay,  however,  lacks 
palatability,  it  deteriorates  in  quality  if  over-ripe,  and 
does  not  as  a  general  rule  compare  with  timothy  in  yield. 
In  the  New  England  States,  redtop  is  largely  used  in  com- 
bination with  other  grasses  for  hay.     It  is  slow  to  start 


THE  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  209 

growth  in  the  spring  or  after  cutting,  but  it  is  very  useful 
in  mixture  for  seeding  permanent  pastures,  since  it  will 
grow  in  places  too  wet  or  too  acid  for  the  other  grasses 
of  the  mixture.  For  pasture  it  ranks  near  blue-grass  in 
palatability,  and  live  stock  eat  it  quite  readily.  Where 
soils  wash  badly,  redtop,  because  of  its  numerous  creeping 
root  stalks,  is  a  valuable  grass  to  bind  the  soil  and  prevent 
washing.  When  grown  for  seed  it  is  a  profitable  crop, 
because  it  can  be  grown  on  soil  that  will  not  give  a  profit- 
able return  from  other  crops. 

196.  Cultural  methods.  —  The  seed  of  redtop  varies 
more  in  quality  and  price  per  bushel  than  other  grass  seed. 
Usually  one  pound  of  well-recleaned  seed  is  worth  as  much 
for  seeding  as  four  or  five  pounds  of  the  uncleaned  seed. 
When  seeded  alone,  15  pounds  of  well-cleaned  seed  is 
regarded  as  a  full  seeding.  It  may  be  seeded  in  the  same 
way  as  described  for  timothy.  In  pastures  or  wood  lots 
having  low,  wet  areas,  redtop  may  be  useful  to  improve 
the  herbage.  The  seed  may  be  scattered  over  these 
areas  in  February  and  March  and  the  freezing  and  thawing 
will  cover  the  seed. 


CHAPTER  XI 
OTHER  PERENNIAL  GRASSES 

ORCHARD-GRASS 

ORCHARD-GRASS  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it 
grows  well  in  the  shade,  and  for  this  reason  is  commonly 
grown  in  orchards.  In  England  it  is  known  as  cocksfoot 

from  the  resem- 
blance of  the  pan- 
icle to  a  cock's  foot. 
197.  Description. 
—  Orchard-grass, 
Dactylis  glomerata, 
is  a  perennial  with 
a  strong  tufted 
habit  of  growth. 
It  has  no  creeping 
root  stalks  like  red- 
top  or  blue-grass, 
but  tillers  are  pro- 
duced from  nodes 
of  the  culm  just 
above  the  ground. 
The  root  system 
grows  to  a  medium 
depth,  not  so  deep 
as  timothy,  and 
not  so  shallow  as 


FIG.  74.  —  Orchard-grass  in  full  bloom. 
210 


OTHER  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  211 

blue-grass.  The  culms  are  inclined  to  be  coarse  and  vary 
from  1J  to  3  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  are  abundant 
on  the  culm,  but  the  blades  are  large  and  thick.  The 
inflorescence  is  a  one-sided  spreading  panicle  with  a  spike- 
let  arranged  in  dense  clusters.  The  spikelets  have  from 
three  to  four  flowers,  and  the  seeds  when  they  mature  re- 
main within  the  glumes.  The  keel  of  the  flowering  glume 
extends  into  a  short,  slightly  curved  awn.  The  legal 
weight  per  bushel  is  14  pounds,  although  when  well  cleaned 
a  bushel  may  weigh  as  much  as  22  pounds. 

198.  Distribution   and    adaptation.  —  Orchard-grass   is 
one  of  the  commonest  grasses  in  England  and  Europe. 
In  the  United  States  it  has  a  wide  distribution,  but  is  of 
the  most  importance  here  in  the  states  just  south  of  the 
timothy    region,    especially   in   West   Virginia,    Virginia, 
Kentucky,  and    Missouri.     Orchard-grass    will    grow   on 
almost  any  type  of  soil,  but  grows  most  luxuriantly  on 
fertile,  well-drained  soils.     It  will  withstand  severe  winter 
cold,  but  is  often  injured  by  late  spring  frosts. 

199.  Uses.  —  Orchard-grass    is    important    as    a    hay 
grass  only  outside  of  the  timothy  region.     Orchard-grass 
hay,  according  to  analysis,  is  equal  to  timothy  in  feeding 
value,  but  unless  it  is  cut  at  the  proper  stage  of  growth 
and  well  cured,  the  live  stock  will  not  eat  it  as  readily. 
For  the  best  quality  of  hay,  the  grass  should  be  cut  when 
in  full  bloom.     After  this  time  it  rapidly  becomes  woody 
and  deteriorates  in  palat ability  and  feeding  value.     The 
quality  of  the  hay  depends  also  upon  the  thickness  of 
seeding;    when   seeded   thinly,    it  is  coarse  and  woody. 
Under  favorable  conditions  it  yields  two  cuttings  of  hay 
per  year.     It  ripens  at  the  same  time  red  clover  does  and 
if  they  are  seeded  together,  the  mixture,  if  cut  at  the  proper 
time,  makes  valuable  hay.     As  a  pasture  grass,  it  is  eaten 


212  FIELD    CROP  PRODUCTION 

by  live  stock  almost  as  readily  as  timothy.  It  makes  a 
desirable  mixture  with  meadow  fescue  and  white  clover. 
It  has  to  recommend  it  as  a  pasture  grass  the  fact  that  it  is 
one  of  the  first  grasses  to  start  in  the  spring  and  grows  late 
in  the  fall.  It  also  grows  well  during  the  hot  months  of 
summer  and  quickly  springs  up  after  pasturing  or  cutting. 

In  a  few  localities  of  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
and  Indiana,  it  is  grown  for  the  seed.  When  grown  for  the 
seed,  it  is  cut  with  the  grain  binder  and  handled  much 
like  a  grain  crop.  The  straw  after  thrashing  has  some 
feeding  value,  and  the  after  growth  either  makes  excellent 
fall  pasture,  or  is  cut  for  hay.  The  yield  of  seed  per  acre 
varies  from  8  to  25  bushels,  the  average  being  about  15 
bushels.  The  price  received  by  the  grower  varies  from 
one  to  two  dollars  per  bushel. 

200.  Cultural  methods.  —  Orchard-grass  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country  is  sown  broadcast  on  winter  wheat  in 
January  or  February,  the  freezing  and  thawing  covering 
the  seed.  Sometimes  it  is  seeded  in  the  spring  with  oats. 
When  seeded  alone,  the  usual  practice  is  to  apply  the  seed 
to  a  well-prepared  seed  bed  in  late  summer  or  early  fall. 
Usually  no  crop  can  be  expected  the  first  season,  either 
when  seeded  with  a  grain  crop  or  alone.  The  rate  of  seed- 
ing will  depend  on  the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is 
grown.  When  a  seed  crop  is  desired,  14  or  15  pounds  per 
acre  are  used,  and  if  hay  or  pasture  is  the  object,  the 
rate  is  increased  to  twice  as  much  as  for  seed. 

BROME-GRASS 

While  brome-grass  is  the  most  common  name  applied 
to  this  grass,  it  is  also  known,  and  its  seed  is  sometimes 
sold,  under  the  names  of  smooth  brome,  awnless  brome, 
Hungarian  brome,  and  Russian  brome-grass.  Brome- 


OTHER   PERENNIAL   GRASSES  213 

grass  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  about  1882  by  the  California  Experiment 
Station.  Its  usefulness  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
appreciated  in  this  country  until  it  received  favorable 
comment  in  Canadian  agricultural  publications,  and  it  was 
from  Canada  that  our  seedsmen 
got  their  first  supply  of  seed. 

201.  Description.  — The  genus 
Bromus,  to  which  brome-grass, 
Bromus  inermis,  belongs,  con- 
tains many  useful  grasses,  but 
also  some  of  doubtful  reputation. 
Chess  or  cheat,  the  common  weed 
pest  of  the  wheat  field,  is  a  near 
relative  of  the  useful  brome-grass. 
There  are  several  other  members 
of  the  genus  Bromus  that  are  use- 
ful as  forage  grasses,  but  they  are 
of  minor  importance  as  compared 
with  brome-grass. 

Brome-grass  is  a  deep-rooted, 
strongly  stoloniferous  plant. 
The  creeping  root  stalks  branch 
out  in  all  directions,  producing 
at  the  nodes  a  bud  which  usually 
produces  another  plant,  and  in 
this  way  the  plants  quickly  form  FlG-  75>  ~  Brome-gras3- 
a  thick,  firm  sod.  Because  of  its  deep-rooting  character, 
the  plant  is  able  to  withstand  drought  to  a  remark- 
able degree.  The  culms  of  brome-grass  are,  when  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  tame  grasses,  rather  short  and 
thick.  The  leaves  are  broad,  thick,  and  abundant  and 
grow  largely  from  the  nodes  near  the  ground.  The 


214  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

flowers  are  carried  in  a  wide-spreading  panicle  from  4  to 
8  inches  in  length,  made  of  numerous  spikelets,  which  are 
large  and  contain  from  6  to  10  flowers  each.  The  seeds 
of  brome-grass,  when  thrashed,  are  retained  in  the  flower- 
ing glume  and  palea.  The  legal  weight  per  bushel  for  the 
seed  in  the  United  States  is  14  pounds. 

202.  Distribution  and  adaptation.  —  Brome-grass  is  a 
native  of  the  north  temperate  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
where  it  has  been  grown  for  many  years.     In  the  United 
States  it  does  not  do  well  south  of  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis, 
except  in  high  altitudes.     It  withstands  cold  well  and  is 
hardy  far  up  in  Canada.     Brome-grass  is  noted  for  its 
ability  to  withstand  drought,  but  does  not  do  well  in 
extremely  dry  climates.     It  is  therefore  a  valuable  grass 
for  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  West,  and  for  the  cool 
climate  of  the  Great  Plains  area  of  the  Northwest  and  in 
Canada.     While  it  will  grow  on  a  variety  of  soils,  it  is  not 
well  suited  to  sandy  or  loose  soils,  and  does  best  on  moist 
loams.     Brome-grass  has  not    yet  become    a   successful 
competitor  of  timothy  in  the  timothy  belt. 

203.  Usefulness.  —  Brome-grass  is  classed  among  the 
best  hay  grasses  of  Europe.     In  the  United  States  it  is 
given  high  rank,  but  because  only  small  quantities  are 
found  on  the  market,  it  does  not  rival  timothy.     The 
hay  is  palatable  and  is  readily  eaten  by  all  kinds  of  live 
stock.     Brome-grass  will  produce  a  fine  crop  of  hay  for 
two  or  three  years,  after  which  time  it  becomes  sod-bound 
and  sends  up  few  culms,  but  continues  to  produce  many 
short  leaves  from  the  nodes  near  the  ground,  and  thus 
furnishes    excellent    pasture.     Unlike    almost    all    other 
grasses,  it  furnishes  an  abundance  of  pasture  during  the 
dry  summer  months,   starting  early  in  the  spring  and 
growing  until  late  in  the  fall.     It  recovers  quickly  after 


OTHER  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  215 

cutting  or  grazing  and  because  of  the  thick,  firm  sod  which 
it  makes,  stands  tramping  well.  In  palatability  it  is 
surpassed  only  by  blue-grass. 

204.  Cultural  methods.  —  Brome-grass  is  usually  seeded 
in  the  spring  with  a  light  seeding  of  one  of  the  grain  crops. 
Twenty  pounds  of  well-cleaned  seed  per  acre  is  the  usual 
rate  of  seeding.     It  makes  but  little  growth  the  first  year, 
but  usually  will  furnish  considerable  pasture  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  season.     The  seeding  may  be  done  in  late 
summer  or  early  fall,  in  which  case  a  considerable  growth 
may  be  expected  the  next  year.     When  the  crop  is  grown 
for  seed,  it  should  not  be  cut  until  fully  mature,  for  if  cut 
prematurely  the  vitality  is  impaired.     Formerly  much  of 
the  seed  used  in  this  country  was  imported  from  Europe. 
Within    recent    years,   however,   considerable    quantities 
of  it  have  been  produced  in  the  Great  Plains  area  of  the 
United  States.     The  yield  of  seed  varies  from  200  to  400 
pounds  per  acre.     After  thrashing,  the  straw  may  be  used 
for  feeding,  and  if  not  badly  weathered,  it  is  relished  by 
most  classes  of  live  stock.     Because  of  the  many  branch- 
ing stolons,  this  grass  is  sometimes  difficult  to  eradicate. 
This  objection,  however,  may  be  largely  overcome  if  the 
land  is  plowed  deeply  and  planted  to  a  crop  that  requires 
considerable  tillage  during  the  growing  season. 

THE    FESCUES 

There  are  several  species  of  the  genus  Festuca  that  are 
of  agricultural  importance.  The  most  common  form  is 
meadow  fescue,  Festuca  elatior.  Another  variety,  which 
grows  taller  than  the  meadow  form,  is  called  tall  fescue. 

205.  Description.  —  Meadow    fescue    is    a    perennial 
having  long,  fibrous  roots  which  grow  deep  into  the  ground. 
It  is  not  stoloniferous,  neither  does  it  grow  in  prominent 


216 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


tufts  or  bunches  like  orchard-grass.  The  culms  are  rather 
short,  when  compared  with  those  of  other  grasses,  varying 
from  1J  to  3  feet  in  height.  In  the  tall  fescue,  the  culms 
are  usually  from  3  to  6  inches  taller  than  those  of  meadow 
fescue,  growing  under  the  same  conditions. 
The  leaves  of  both  species  have  a  distinguish- 
ing shiny  appearance,  and  are  an  intensely 
dark  green  in  color.  Not  many  leaves  are 
produced  on  the  culms,  but  basal  leaves  grow 
in  great  abundance.  When  the  plant  is  young, 
the  panicle  is  closed,  but  as  it  reaches  matur- 
ity it  becomes  more  spreading  and  slightly 
drooping.  The  spikelets  are  fairly  large  and 
contain  several  flowers. 

206.  Adaptation  and  distribution.  — Meadow 
fescue  is  of  great  importance  only  in  three  or 
four  counties  in  eastern  Kansas  and  western 
Missouri,  although  it  is  grown  more  or  less  in 
meadow  and  pasture  mixtures  in  the  North 
Central  and  New  England  States.     In  some 
of  the   valleys  in  Washington   and  Oregon, 
tall   fescue  attains  considerable  importance. 
Meadow  fescue   will  grow   on   a  variety  of 
soils,  but  is  especially  adapted  to  those  of  the 
stiff  clay  type. 

207.  Uses.  —  While  this  grass  is  used  both 
for  meadows  and  for  pastures,  it  is  probably  better  adapted 
for  pasture  than  for  hay.     It  makes  a  compact,  leafy  sod, 
which  stands  tramping  well.     It  grows  early  in  the  spring 
and  late  in  the  fall.    In  palatability  it  rivals  Kentucky  blue- 
grass.     It  is  grown  principally  for  the  seed  in  certain  parts 
of  Kansas  and  Missouri,  where  it  ranks  next  in  importance 
to  the  small  grain  crops.    This  section  supplies  the  demand 


FIG.  76.— 
Meadow  fes- 
cue. 


OTHER  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  217 

of  the  United  States  for  meadow  fescue  seed;  and  when  more 
is  grown  than  is  needed  here,  the  surplus  is  often  exported. 
When  grown  for  the  seed,  it  is  cut  with  the  grain  binder 
and  bound  in  sheaths.  The  production  of  the  seed  varies 
from  3  to  25  bushels  per  acre,  the  average  being  about 
10  or  12.  The  weight  per  bushel  varies  from  12  pounds  in 
seed  that  is  not  well  cleaned,  to  as  much  as  25  pounds  in 
well-cleaned  seed. 

208.  Cultural  methods.  —  Meadow  fescue  seed  is  com- 
monly low  in  vitality,  the  standard  of  germination  being 
75  per  cent,  although  it  frequently  goes  much  lower  than 
this.     When  seeded  alone,  from  30  to  40  pounds  per  acre 
is  used,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  cleanness  of  the 
seed  and  upon  its  vitality.     It  is  not  often  sown  alone, 
except  when  grown  for  seed.     More  often  it  is  seeded 
with  other  grasses  for  hay  or  pasture,  and  when  seeded 
this  way,  from  2  to  10  pounds  per  acre  is  used,  depending 
upon  the  kind  of  mixture  desired. 

BERMUDA-GRASS 

Bermuda-grass  was  introduced  into  this  country  in 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  all  prob- 
ability it  did  not  come  from  the  Bermuda  Islands,  as  its 
name  would  indicate,  there  being  evidence  that  it  was 
shipped  in  with  some  foreign  merchandise  through  the 
West  Indies. 

209.  Description.  —  Bermuda-grass,  Capriola  dactylon, 
is  a  strong  perennial  with  a  dense  stoloniferous  root  system, 
composed  of  both  above  and  below  ground  stolons.     It 
therefore   quickly  forms  a  thick,  firm  sod.     The  culms, 
which  are  usually  short,  produce  only  a  few  leaves,  but 
basal   leaves   grow  in  abundance.     The    inflorescence  is 
made  up  of  from  three  to  five  one-sided  spikes,  from  1  to 


218  FIELD   CEOP  PRODUCTION 

3  inches  long.  The  spikelets  are  one-flowered,  and  seldom 
mature  seed  in  the  United  States,  excepting  in  the  extreme 
southern  parts  where  favorable  conditions  exist. 

210.  Distribution  and  adaptation.  —  Bermuda-grass  is 
a  tropical  or  warm-country  plant  and  may  be  found  grow- 
ing throughout  the  warm  regions  of  the  world.     In  the 
United  States  its  field  of  usefulness  is  confined  to  the  cotton 
growing  states  and  those  adjacent  to  them.     It  grows  best 
during  the  hot  months  in  summer,  and  will  stand  extreme 
periods  of  drought.     It  grows  on  almost  all  kinds  of  soil, 
and  has  special  adaptation  to  light,  sandy  soils.     Bermuda- 
grass  does  not  love  the  shade,  but  grows  well  in  the  waste 
lands,  if  kept  free  from  shrubs  and  weeds. 

211.  Uses.  —  While   many  grasses   grow  well   in  the 
South,  none  can  compare  in  importance  and  usefulness 
in  this  section  with  Bermuda-grass.     On  good  soils  and 
under  favorable  climatic  conditions,  Bermuda-grass  grows 
large  enough  to  be  cut  for  hay.     Under  such  conditions 
it  can  be  cut  three  or  four  times  during  the  season,  and 
while  the  yield  of  hay  per  cutting  is  not  large,  the  amount 
obtained  from  all  of  the  cuttings  together  makes  it  a 
profitable  hay  crop.     The  hay  made  from  it  is  of  excellent 
quality,  equal  to,  if  not  better  than  timothy  in  palata- 
bility  and  feeding  value.     As  a  pasture  grass  it  takes  first 
rank.     Bermuda-grass  is  useful  also  as  a  lawn  grass,  but 
since  it  does  not  grow  well  in  the  shade,  it  is  not  desirable 
for  shaded  lawns  or  parks. 

212.  Cultural  methods.  —  Almost  all  of  the  seed  used 
in  the  United  States  is  imported  from  Australia,  and  it  is 
very  expensive  and  unreliable  in  quality.     It  is  fortunate, 
therefore,  for  the  farmers  of  the  South,  that  the  grass  can 
be  propagated  by  planting  pieces  of  the  sod  containing  a 
piece  of  the  underground  root  stalks.     Several  methods  of 


OTHER  PERENNIAL   GRASSES  219 

planting  the  bits  of  sod  are  in  common  practice.  They 
may  be  spread  in  the  growing  corn  and  covered  at  the  last 
cultivation,  or  the  field  may  be  plowed  and  marked  off 
with  furrows  two  feet  apart  and  the  sod  dropped  in  the 
furrow  and  covered.  Sometimes  the  bits  of  sod  are 
dropped  in  the  furrow  as  the  ground  is  being  plowed. 
Probably  the  most  interesting  method  is  that  of  having  a 
barefoot  boy  carrying  the  pieces  of  sod  in  a  basket,  pass 
over  the  field  soon  after  a  rain,  dropping  the  sod  and 
pressing  it  into  the  soil  with  his  foot.  So  vigorously  do 
the  root  stalks  grow  out  in  all  directions,  that  a  dense  sod 
is  formed  within  a  short  time. 

JOHNSON-GRASS 

213.  Johnson-grass,     Sorghum     halepense,    was     introduced 
into  the  United  States  about  75  years  ago  and  rapidly  spread 
over  the  Southern  States.     It  is  known  in  some  localities  as 
Means  grass.     The  plant  is  strongly  stoloniferous,  growing  from 
4  to  7  feet  in  height,  bearing  long,  broad,  flat  leaves.     The 
panicle  resembles  that  of  the  millets,  bearing  the  spikelets  in 
pairs.     The  seeds,  when  thrashed,  are  naked  and  resemble  those 
of  the  sorghums  in  appearance.     The  weight  per  bushel  is  45 
pounds.     This  grass  is  common  in  the  Southern  States,  where  in 
many  places  it  is  regarded  as  a  weed,  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
eradicating  it.     As  a  hay  grass,  it  is 'one  of  the  best  in  the  South. 
It  yields  more  than  any  other ;   in  favorable  localities  three  full 
cuttings  can  be  made  per  year.     The  quality  of  the  hay  is  excel- 
lent, being  preferred  by  live  stock  to  timothy.     It  does  not  sell 
readily  on  the  market,  because  the  seeds  carried  with  the  hay 
cause  it  to  be  introduced  into  localities  where  it  is  considered  a 
serious  pest.     As  a  pasture  grass,  it  is  very  productive,  but  does 
not  stand  tramping  well  and  is  not  so  good  for  this  purpose  as  is 
Bermuda-grass. 

THE    RYE    GRASSES 

214.  Perennial  rye  grass,    Lolium   perenne,   is  a  native   of 
Europe  and  is  sometimes  called  English  rye  grass.     It  is  peren- 


220  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

nial  in  duration  and  grows  somewhat  in  tufts.  It  grows  luxuri- 
antly in  fertile  and  moist  soils,  but  on  dry  soils  it  is  of  little  value. 
In  England  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  grasses,  entering  into 
mixtures  for  both  pastures  and  meadows.  In  the  United  States 
it  has  never  been  of  much  importance,  excepting  in  a  few  places 
in  the  Pacific  Coast  States.  It  makes  a  good  quality  of  hay  and 
is  relished  by  live  stock. 

215.  Italian  rye  grass,  Lolium  italicum,  is  a  biennial,  although 
in  some  places  it  lives  but  one  year.  It  is  of  little  importance  in 
the  United  States  excepting  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  where  it 
is  frequently  found  in  meadows.  On  account  of  its  duration, 
it  is  not  adapted  for  permanent  pastures.  It  is  a  rapid  grower 
and  compared  with  the  perennial  rye  grass  has  coarser,  taller 
stems  and  is  lighter  in  color. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  ANNUAL  GRASSES  FOR  GRAIN  AND 
FORAGE 

THE   MILLETS 

THE  term  "  millet"  as  employed  in  general  usage 
includes  a  number  of  species,  all  of  which  are  members  of 
the  grass  family,  and  may  be  grown  either  for  grain  or 
for  forage.  In  Japan,  China,  India,  and  other  parts  of 
Asia,  they  are  grown  largely  for  the  grain,  and  therefore 
belong  to  the  cereals.  In  the  United  States,  however, 
they  are  generally  grown  for  forage,  and  are  most  often 
classed  with  the  forage  crops.  The  millets,  while  includ- 
ing several  distinct  species,  have  in  common  the  fact  that 
they  are  all  annuals,  similar  in  their  habits  of  growth  and 
cultural  requirements.  The  millets  commonly  grown  in 
America  may  be  divided  into  three  principal  groups, 
namely,  the  fox-tail  millets,  the  broom-corn  millets,  and 
the  barnyard  millets. 

216.  The  fox-tail  millets,  Chcetochloa  italica.  —  This 
group  of  millets  gets  its  name  from  the  resemblance  of 
its  members  to  the  common  fox-tail  weed  from  which  they 
are  supposed  to  have  been  derived.  Members  of  this 
group  are  the  most  commonly  grown,  and  are  also  the  most 
important  of  the  millets  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
all  erect,  hot  weather  plants,  with  a  spike-like  head,  which 
distinguishes  them  from  the  other  groups.  They  are 

221 


222 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


rather  drought  resistant,  growing  best  on  fertile  soils, 
although  a  fair  yield  may  be  expected  on  relatively  poor 
soils.  There  are  three  important  varieties  of  fox-tail 

millets,    namely,    common, 
German,  and  Hungarian. 

217.  Common  millet.  — 
This  variety  was  the  first 
to  come  into  general  use  in 
this  country  and  is  still 
probably  the  one  most  com- 
monly grown.  Several  slen- 
der stems,  which  grow  from 
2  to  4  feet  in  height,  are  pro- 
duced by  each  plant.  The 
leaves  are  narrow  and  dark 
green  in  color,  the  spike 
grows  almost  erect,  is  com- 
pact with  numerous  bristly 
hairs,  and  the  seeds  are 
somewhat  larger  than  those 

1  of    Hungarian    or    German 

R  /  millets   and   are   yellow  in 

ft  color.   Common  millet  is  the 

/I  earliest  of  the  three  varie- 

ties, and  is  adapted  to  the 
Northern  States,  although  it 
will  do  well  elsewhere.  It  is 
better  adapted  to  medium 
fertile  soils  than  the  German 
millet,  although  larger  yields  are  obtained  under  more 
favorable  conditions.  It  is  almost  always  grown  for  hay 
and  under  favorable  conditions  will  yield  from  2  to  2J  tons 
per  acre. 


FIG.  77. —  Common  and  Siberian 
millet. 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES 


223 


218.  Hungarian    millet.  —  This    millet    is    sometimes 
known  as,  and  the  seed  is  often  sold  under  the  name  of, 
Hungarian  grass.     Hungarian  millet  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  soon  after  the  introduction  of  common 
millet,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the  important  varieties,  being 
grown  almost  exclusively  for  hay.     It  differs  from  common 
millet  in  having  a  shorter  and  more  erect  spike  and  the 
seeds  are  either  yellow  or 

purple.  Like  the  common 
millet,  it  produces  several 
culms  from  a  single  seed. 
It  requires  a  little  longer 
season  and  is  not  quite  so 
drought  resistant  as  the 
common  millet,  although 
under  favorable  condi- 
tions it  may  be  expected 
to  yield  a  little  more  hay. 
The  hay,  however,  is  not 
quit.e  so  good  in  quality 
as  that  made  from  com- 
mon millet. 

219.  German  millet  — 
This    millet    is    a    large, 
rank  growing  variety,  with 
short,  broad  leaves,  and  a 

nodding  spike.  The  seeds  are  yellow  and  are  smaller  than 
those  of  the  common  and  Hungarian  millets,  and  although 
it  sometimes  produces  tillers,  usually  but  one  stem  grows 
from  each  seed.  German  millet  is  a  late  variety,  requiring 
a  longer  growing  season  than  the  common  and  Hungarian 
millets.  It  is  not  adapted  to  poor  or  medium  fertile 
soils,  but  for  good  yields  must  be  sown  in  fertile,  moist 


FIG.  78 .  —  German  millet. 


224 


FIELD  CHOP  PRODUCTION 


soils.  It  yields  more  per  acre  than  the  common  or  Hun- 
garian, but  the  hay  is  coarser  and  is  of  not  quite  so  good 
quality,  although  when  it  is  properly  made,  live  stock 
eat  it  quite  readily. 

220.  The  broom-corn  millets.  —  Broom-corn  millet, 
Panicum  miliaceum,  is  so  named  because  of  the  similarity 
of  the  head,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  panicle,  to  that  of 

broom-corn.  The  broom- 
corn  millets  are  grown  ex- 
tensively in  southern  Eu- 
rope and  in  many  parts  of 
Asia,  but  they  have  never 
been  extensively  grown  in 
the  United  States,  and  are 
not  nearly  so  important 
here  as  the  fox-tail  varieties. 
Some  varieties,  however,  are 
grown  rather  extensively  in 
the  Northwest,  where,  on 
account  of  the  short  season 
and  dry  climate,  they  pro- 
vide a  good  substitute  for 
corn.  The  varieties  of 
broom-corn  millets  vary 
more  or  less  in  their  habits 
of  growth,  but  the  group  as 

a  whole,  when  compared  with  fox-tails,  do  not  produce  as 
much  forage  as  the  latter,  but  produce  more  seed.  The 
stems  are  large  and  often  hollow,  and  the  leaves  are  covered 
with  hair,  giving  a  coarse,  rather  unpalatable  forage. 
The  seeds  are  large  and  variously  colored,  the  colors  of 
red,  white,  and  yellow  being  especially  prominent.  They 
are  valuable  plants  for  many  sections  of  the  Northwest, 


FIG.  79.  —  Broom-corn  millet. 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES 


225 


since  they  produce  a  good  yield  of  grain  in  a  short,  dry 
season.  Sometimes  as  many  as  60  bushels  are  produced 
per  acre.  When  grown  for  the  grain,  millets  are  handled 
in  much  the  same  way  as  the  small 
cereal  crops. 

221.  The  barnyard  millets,  Pani- 
cum  crus-galli. — The  barnyard  mil- 
lets is  the  name  given  to  a  group 
of  plants,  most  of  which  are  varie- 
ties of  the  single  species  known  as 
barnyard  grass,  which  is  a  common 
weed,  growing  wild  in  moist,  rich 
soils  throughout  the  United  States. 
Varieties  of  barnyard  grass  are 
grown  for  both  grain  and  forage. 
In  Japan  they  have  received  the 
most  favor,  and  are  there  an  im- 
portant crop,  being  grown  for  the 
seed  which  is  used  for  human  food. 
In  the  United  States,  the  barnyard 
millets  have  not  been  grown  to  any 
considerable  extent.  Recently,  how- 
ever, the  Massachusetts  Station  im- 
ported from  Japan  a  variety  known 
as  Japanese  millet,  which,  when 
tested  at  that  station,  gave  a  higher 
yield  of  forage  than  any  of  the 
other  varieties  of  millets.  The  seed 
of  this  variety  is  put  upon  the  market  under  the  name 
of  "  billion  dollar  grass  "  and  extensively  advertised  as  a 
great  forage  grass.  Experience  has  shown,  however, 
that  while  the  barnyard  millets  ordinarily  give  a  heavy 
yield  of  forage,  the  quality  of  the  hay  is  quite  inferior  to 


FIG. 


80.  —  Barnyard 
millet. 


226  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

that  made  from  the  fox-tail  millets.  The  plant  grows 
rather  tall  and  has  a  more  or  less  open  head,  free  from 
bristles.  It  does  not  withstand  drought  well,  requires  a 
fertile  moist  soil,  and  is  better  adapted  for  use  in  the  silo 
or  as  a  soiling  crop  than  for  making  hay. 

222.  Pearl  millet,  Pennisetum  spicatum. — While  classed 
as  a  millet,  this  plant  more  closely  resembles  sorghum 
or  corn  than  do  the  millets.     It  grows  from  5  to  12  feet 
in  height,  the   spike   is  from  6   to  15  inches  long,  very 
compact  and  almost  cylindrical,  resembling  the  " cat-tail" 
flag,  which  grows  wild  in  swampy  places  (in  fact,  it  is 
sometimes  called  cat-tail  millet),  and  the  leaves  closely 
resemble  those  of  sorghum.     Pearl  millet  requires  a  rich, 
moist  soil,  and  a  long,  hot  growing  season  for   its  best 
growth.     Under  these  conditions  it  suckers   abundantly 
and  produces  a  large  yield  of  forage,  which  may  be  cut 
several  times  during  the  season.     Pearl  millet  is  impor- 
tant only  in  the  South. 

223.  Uses  of  millets.  —  Millets  have  been  grown  for 
centuries  in  India,  China,  and  Japan,  where  they  are  used 
as  human  food.     Indeed,  it  is  said  that  millet  enters  into 
the  dietary  of  over  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
globe.     When  used  for  food,  it  is  usually  boiled  or  parched, 
and  is  eaten  alone  or  with  milk  and  sugar.     It  is  considered 
a  nutritious  and  digestible  food.     In  the  United  States, 
millet  is  used  only  as  a  feed  for  domestic  animals.     It  is 
most  commonly  used  as  hay,  and  compares  favorably  in 
digestibility  and  nutritive  value  with  timothy.     It  may  be 
fed  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses,  usually  in  combination 
with  other  forage,  since,  if  fed  alone,  it  sometimes  pro- 
duces injurious  effects  on  the  kidneys  of  the  animals. 
It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  soiling  crop,  especially  in  sec- 
tions where  the  silo  has  not  come  into  general  use.     Under 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES  227 

favorable  conditions  it  may  be  cut  for  this  purpose  in  from 
40  to  50  days  from  the  date  of  seeding.  The  common  and 
Hungarian  varieties  are  the  ones  best  adapted  both  for  hay 
and  for  soiling.  Millet  may  also  be  used  for  pasture,  either 
alone  or  in  combination?  with  other  annuals,  like  cowpeas 
and  soy  beans.  Massachusetts  Station  has  recommended 
it  for  the  silo,  and  their  experience  shows  that  it  can  be 
preserved  in  excellent  condition  in  the  silo.  When  grown 
for  its  seed,  which  is  used  for  feeding  domestic  animals, 
the  yield  varies  from  15  to  60  bushels  per  acre.  Millet 
is  not  usually  grown  in  the  regular  rotation  except  in  the 
Northwest.  It  finds  •  its  greatest  usefulness  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  corn  and  hay  crops  when  they  fail.  It  is  then 
found  valuable  as  an  emergency  hay  crop. 

224.  Cultural  methods.  —  Millets  grow  best  on  rich, 
fertile  soils,  but  certain  varieties,  as  the  common  and 
Hungarian  millets,  may  produce  good  yields  on  the  soils 
of  medium  fertility.  They  are  rapid  growers,  but,  on 
account  of  their  small  seeds,  require  a  well-prepared  seed 
bed.  Seeding  should  be  delayed  until  the  soil  is  well 
warmed  up,  usually  until  just  after  corn  planting.  Seed 
may  either  be  sown  with  a  drill  or  sown  broadcast  and 
harrowed  in.  For  most  varieties  3  pecks  per  acre  is  con- 
sidered a  full  seeding  for  hay,  a  thinner  rate  producing 
coarser  stems  which  do  not  make  as  good  a  quality  of 
hay.  Japanese  millet  is  seeded  at  the  rate  of  2  pecks  per 
acre.  The  quality  of  the  hay  depends  largely  upon  the 
time  of  cutting.  It  rapidly  deteriorates  after  the  seeds 
have  reached  the  dough  stage,  hay  cut  after  that  time 
becoming  less  palatable  and  less  digestible.  The  best 
quality  of  hay  may  be  had  if  the  crop  is  cut  between  the 
time  that  the  heads  begin  to  appear  and  before  they  reach 
full  bloom.  The  hay  is  cut  and  harvested  in  much  the 


228  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

same  way  as  timothy,  although  a  little  more  difficulty 
may  be  experienced  in  curing  it. 

THE   SORGHUMS 

Cultivated  sorghums  have  been  derived  from  a  wild 
grass,  Sorghum  halepense,  which  may  be  found  growing 
in  tropical  and  semi-tropical  parts  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere. Sometime  in  the  distant  past  varieties  of  this 
grass  were  found  to  be  useful  to  man  as  food.  Selection 
of  the  best  individuals  for  seed  through  all  of  the  succeed- 
ing generations  has  greatly  changed  the  progeny  from  the 
original  form  of  the  grass,  and  increased  their  value.  The 
sorghums  of  to-day,  therefore,  like  many  of  our  other 
cultivated  crops,  owe  their  present  form  and  great  useful- 
ness to  long  years  of  selection.  How  long  ago  and  by 
what  people  sorghums  were  first  used  is  not  known. 
Mention  of  them  in  the  ancient  records  of  the  people 
living  in  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers, 
and  in  India  and  Egypt,  indicate  that  they  are  among  the 
oldest  of  cultivated  plants. 

225.  General  description.  —  While  there  are  three 
main  classes  of  sorghums,  and  many  varieties  of  each 
class,  they  all  have  certain  characters  in  common.  The 
sorghums  have  a  strong,  fibrous  root  system  and  are 
known  as  plants  with  great  feeding  capacity  and  a  general 
ability  to  withstand  drought,  some  varieties  being  espe- 
cially adapted  to  sections  with  little  rainfall.  The  culms 
are  tall,  varying  in  height  from  four  to  twelve  feet.  In 
appearance  the  plants  are  much  like  corn,  and  like  those 
of  corn,  the  culms  are  solid.  The  leaves  are  long,  but  not 
so  wide  as  those  of  corn,  and  they  have  a  glossier  appear- 
ance. The  inflorescence,  or  head,  is  carried  at  the  top 
of  the  stem,  and  varies  in  shape  from  a  rather  compact 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES  229 

spike-like  panicle,  as  in  the  kafirs  and  some  other  grain 
sorghums,  to  a  loose,  long  branched  panicle,  as  in  the 
broom-corns.  The  grains  of  the  sorghums  differ  from  those 
of  the  cereals  in  that  they  are  rounder.  They  vary  in 
size  and  shape  with  the  varieties,  but  in  general  they  are 
much  smaller  than  corn  kernels,  and  usually  red  or  white 
in  color. 

226.  Classes  of  sorghums.  —  Sorghums  may  be  divided 
into  three  main  classes,  namely,  saccharine,  nonsaccharine, 
and  the  broom-corns. 

THE  SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS  OR  SORGO 

227.  Description   and    varieties.  —  The    saccharine  or 
sweet  sorghums  are  so  called  because  of  the  high  percent- 
age of  sugar  contained  in  the  juices  of  the  stems,  which 
distinguishes  them  from  the  other  two  groups.     When 
the  word  "  sorghum  "  alone  is  used,  it  usually  refers  to 
the  members  of  this  group,  which  are  sometimes  known 
locally  as  "  cane."     The  sweet  sorghums  are  used  both 
for  forage  and  for  the  making  of  sirup  or  molasses.     They 
grow  from  5  to  10  or  more  feet  in  height  and  have  numer- 
ous, rather  broad  leaves.     The  head  varies  in  size  and 
shape  from  an  open  panicle,  in  appearance  much  like  a 
corn  tassel,  as  in  Amber  sorgo,  to  a  compact  spike-like 
panicle,  as  in  Sumac  sorgo.     Their  soil  requirements  are 
similar  to  those  of  corn,  although  they  may  be  grown 
successfully  on  soils  too  poor  to  grow  a  good  crop  of  corn. 
The  sweet  sorghums  are  grown  quite  extensively  both  for 
forage  and  for  sirup  in  the  South  and  Southwest.     They 
do  not  hold  an  important  place  as  a  forage  crop  in  the 
North,   although  within  the  past  few  years  they  have 
been  more  generally  grown.   Many  farmers,  however,  grow 
a  small  area  for  the  production  of  sirup  for  table  use. 


230  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

228.  There  are  several  varieties  of  sweet  sorgos,  which 
may  be  divided  into  four  groups,  namely,  Amber,  Orange, 
Sumac,  and  Gooseneck.     The  basis  for  this  division  is  the 
form  of  the  head  and  the  color  and  covering  of  the  seed. 
The  members  of  the  Amber  group  are  earlier  than  the  other 
three,  and  are  usually  grown  in  the  Northern  States  both 
for  sirup  and  for  forage.     The  Ambers  have  loose,  open 
panicles,  and  the  seeds  are  covered  with  black  or  deep  red 
glumes,  giving  to  the  seed  and  head  a  black  appearance. 
The  Orange  sorgos  are  from  two  to  three  weeks  later  in 
maturing,  and  are  distinguished  from  them  by  a  medium 
compact  head  and  the  yellow  seeds  projecting  beyond  the 
dark  red-black  glumes.     The  Sumac  or  Redtop  sorghums 
have  small  red  seeds  projecting  beyond  the  small  glumes, 
giving  the  head,  which  is  short  and  compact,  a  red  appear- 
ance.    They  mature  about  the  same  time  as  the  Orange 
sorghums.     The   Gooseneck  sorghums   are  so  called  be- 
cause the  stem  that  supports  the  head  is  often  curved, 
permitting  the  latter  to  hang  downward.     The  stalks  of 
the  sorghums  of  this  group  are  rather  large  and  full  of 
sweet  juice,   which,   when  boiled   down  or   evaporated, 
forms  sorghum  molasses. 

229.  Cultural  methods.  —  Sorghum  plants  grow  slowly 
at  first,  and  for  this  reason  they  require  a  well-prepared 
seed  bed  that  is  free  from  weeds.     Unless  the  weeds  are 
destroyed  before  the  crop  is  seeded,  they  are  likely  to 
crowd  and  shade  the  young  sorghum  plants,  with  dis- 
astrous results  to  the  latter.     Sorghums  require  warm 
growing  weather  and  are  usually  not  planted  until  a  week 
or  two  after  corn  may  be  planted.     When  grown  for 
sirup,  the  seeds  may  be  drilled  in  rows,  three   or  three 
and  one-half  feet  apart.     The  amount  of  seed  used  should 
be  such  as  to  give  twice  or  three  times  as  many  plants  per 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES 


231 


acre  as  are  desired  of  corn  plants  to  the  acre,  which  result 
may  be  had  by  using  from  10  to  20  pounds  of  seed.  When 
grown  for  hay,  the  seed  may  either  be  closely  sown  with  a 
drill,  which  requires  about  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre, 
or  it  may  be  drilled  in  rows  as  it  is  for  sirup,  which  re- 
quires only  about  one-third  as  much  seed.  If  weeds  are 
plentiful,  it  is  best  to  cultivate  during  the  early  part  of  the 


FIG.  81.  —  Cutting  sorghum  —  one  of   the   best  forage  crops  for   the 
Middle  West. 


growing  season,  although  good  crops  may  sometimes  be 
grown  without  cultivation. 

230.  Harvesting  for  sirup.  —  Harvesting  for  sirup 
should  be  done  when  the  seeds  are  in  the  late  milk  stage, 
since  at  this  time  the  stems  contain  the  best  quality  of 
juice.  The  heads  and  leaves  should  be  removed  from 
the  stems  before  the  latter  are  passed  through  the  mill, 
since  they  impart  a  disagreeable  taste  to  the  sirup.  They 


232  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

may  be  removed  before  the  plants  are  cut  by  cutting  the 
heads  and  stripping  the  leaves  from  the  standing  stalks, 
or  they  may  be  removed  after  cutting.  The  juice  is  then 
pressed  from  the  stalks  by  running  them  between  heavy 
rollers.  The  juice  is  collected  and  reduced  to  the  desired 
consistency  by  evaporation  over  steam.  The  yield  of 
sirup  varies  from  70  to  300  gallons  per  acre,  the  average 
being  about  125  gallons. 

231.  Harvesting  for  forage.  —  When  grown  for  forage, 
the  crop  may  either  be  cut  and  fed  green,  or  made  into 
hay.     When  used  for  soiling,  it  may  be  cut  as  needed 
from  the  time  the  heads  appear,  until  it  is  ripe.     When 
cut  for  hay,  more  palatable  forage  and  greater  feeding 
value  per  acre  will  be  secured  if  the  crop  is  cut  when  the 
grains  are  in  the  late  milk  stage.     The  feeding  value  of  the 
hay  decreases  from   this  time  until  maturity.     The  best 
quality  of  hay  is  secured  when  the  hay  is  cured  in  small 
cocks  or  windrows,  which  practice  prevents  the  leaves 
from  becoming  sunburned.     Considerable  time  is  required 
for  curing  sorghum  hay  on  account  of  the  large  amount 
of  juice  in  the  stems.     Sometimes  the  crop  may  best  be 
cut  with  a  corn  binder  and  the  bundles  set  up  in  shocks 
to  cure.     This  method  facilitates  handling  and  also  pro- 
motes excellent  conditions  for  curing  while  in  the  shock. 
Sorghum  hay  is  of  good  quality  and  is  relished  by  almost 
all  kinds  of  stock.     The  yield  varies  from  2  to  10  tons 
per  acre. 

THE    NONSACCHARINE    SORGHUMS 

232.  Description.  —  The    common   nonsaccharine    sor- 
ghums may  usually  be  distinguished  from  the  sweet  sor- 
ghums by  their  shorter  and  more  stocky  stems,  which 
usually  contain  little  sap,  although  in  some  varieties  the 
stems   are  rather  juicy   but  scarcely  sweet.     The  non- 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES  233 

saccharine  sorghums,  unlike  the  sorgos,  are  grown  princi- 
pally for  grain,  and  by  many  agronomists  are  grouped  with 
the  cereals ;  but  because  they  are  so  closely  related  to  the 
forage   and   sirup    sorghums,    and    because  the   cultural 
methods  of  the  two  classes  are  so  similar,  they  are  dis- 
cussed together  in  this  chapter.     The  nonsaccharine  or 
grain  sorghums  are  extensively  grown  in  India,  China, 
and  Africa.     In  the  United  States  they  are  grown  rather 
extensively  in  the  southern  half  of  the  Great  Plains  area, 
which  may  be  defined  as  the  area  lying  between  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  a  line  drawn  from  Central  Nebraska  to 
the    Mexican   border.      This    area   will   include   western 
Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas,  and  the  portions  of  Colo- 
rado and  New  Mexico  that  lie  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  grain  sorghums  are  particularly  well  adapted  to  this 
area,  which  is  noted  for  its  low  rainfall,  which  averages 
about  20  inches  annually,  almost  all  of  which  falls  between 
the  months  of  April  and  September.     In  this  section  of  the 
Great  Plains  area,  the  grain  sorghums  hold  a  place  of 
importance  similar  to  that  held  by  corn  in  the  corn  belt 
states.     They  are  able  to  grow  and  produce  a  profitable 
crop  of  grain  under  conditions  of  rainfall  that  prohibit  the 
growing  of  corn  or  other  grain  crops.     The  total  area 
devoted  to  the  growing  of  grain  sorghums  is  approximately 
as  much  as  that  devoted  to  the  growing  of  rye,  but  the 
area  devoted  to  the  former  is  not  widely  scattered  over 
many  states  as  is  the  culture  of  rye.     The  grain  sorghums 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  namely,  the  kafirs  and 
the  milos. 

233.  Kafir.  —  The  kafirs  or  kafir  "  corns  "  differ  from 
the  sweet  sorghums  in  that  their  stems  are  lower,  short- 
jointed,  and  stocky.  They  grow  usually  from  five  to  eight 
feet  in  height,  having  broader  leaves  than  the  sweet 


234  FIELD   CEOP  PRODUCTION 

sorghums,  and  a  more  cylindrical  head  that  always  stands 
erect.  While  the  stalks  do  not  usually  contain  much 
juice,  in  some  varieties  they  are  quite  juicy.  Usually 
the  seeds  are  white,  pink,  or  red,  the  varieties  of  kafir 
being  known  as  white  kafir,  red  kafir,  and  the  like. 

234.  Milo.  —  Milo  or  milo  "  maize  "  resembles   kafir 
in  general  appearance,  but  differs  from  it  in  that  the 
plants   are  less  leafy,   the  heads  are  shorter  and  more 
rounded,  and  the  seeds  are  much  larger,  slightly  flattened, 
and   usually   yellowish  brown  in  color.     The  milos  are 
earlier,  more  drought-evasive,  and  have  lower  water  re- 
quirements than  the  kafirs,  and  it  is  said  that  they  will 
produce  profitable  yields  •  in  sections  having  an  annual 
rainfall  of  only  10  to  15  inches.     The  milos  are  somewhat 
earlier  maturing  than  the  kafirs,  but  the  forage  which 
they  provide  is  less  palatable  on  account  of  their  fewer, 
smaller  leaves  and  more  pithy  stems. 

235.  Cultural  methods.  —  Kafirs  and  milos  are  planted 
much  as  corn  is,  usually  in  rows  3J  feet  with  plants  4  to 
10  inches  apart  in  the  row.     About  3  to  4  pounds  of  seed 
are  required  to  plant  an  acre.     Sometimes  the  planting  is 
done  with  a  lister,  which  gives  the  best  results  on  certain 
soils  and  under  certain  seasonal  conditions.     The  time  of 
planting  kafirs  and  milos  is  usually  a  little  later  than  that 
of  corn,  since  the  former  are  warm  weather  plants  and  do 
not  make  much  growth  until  the  soil  is  well  warmeu  up. 
Harvesting  is  usually  done  with  a  corn  binder,  in  which 
case  the  plants  are  bound  into  bundles  and  set  up  in  shocks 
like    corn.     Sometimes    only    the   heads   are   harvested, 
which  may  be  done  either  by  cutting  them  off  by  hand  with 
a  knife,  or  in  the  case  of  kafir  by  means  of  an  attachment  to 
a  wagon  known  as  a  "  header,"  which  removes  the  heads 
and  conveys  them  to  the  wagon.     The  heads  may  be  fed 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES 


235 


without  thrashing,  or  the  grain  may  be  thrashed  from 
them  by  means  of  a  thrasher.  When  cut  with  the  binder, 
they  may  be  thrashed,  as  are  the  small  grains,  or  fed  in  the 
bundle.  Almost  all  of  the  grain  is  used  in  the  feeding  of 


FIG.  82.  —  Heading  kafir  in  Texas. 


live  stock,  and  it  has  a  feeding  value  equal  to  rather  more 
than  90  per  cent  that  of  corn.  The  stalks  are  about  equal 
to  corn  stover  in  feeding  value,  and  may  be  used  as  rough- 
age. 

THE     BROOMCORNS 

236.  Description.  —  The  broomcorns  differ  from  the 
other  sorghums  principally  in  the  shape  of  the  head,  which 
is  an  umbelliform  panicle  made  up  of  many  long,  tough 
branches.  After  the  immature  seeds  have  been  removed, 
the  panicle  is  called  the  "  brush/'  and  when  several  pani- 
cles are  neatly  tied  with  wire  on  the  end  of  a  long  stick, 
they  become  the  broom  which  is  indispensable  to  the  house- 
wife. Broomcorns  are  of  two  general  types,  namely, 
standard  and  dwarf.  Standard  broomcorn  is  a  tall  plant 
with  brush  from  20  to  28  inches  in  length.  Dwarf  broom- 


236 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


corn,  as  its  name  indicates,  does  not  grow  so  tall,  usually 
only  from  3J  to  6  feet,  and  the  brush  varies  in  length  from 
12  to  22  inches.  Brush  from  the  standard  varieties  is 

used  in  the  making  of 
large  house  or  stable 
brooms,  while  that 
from  the  dwarf  varie- 
ties is  used  for  the 
making  of  whisk 
brooms  and  other 
small  brooms  and 
brushes. 

237.  Adaptation 
and  importance.  — 
Broomcorn  may  be 
grown  on  any  soil 
that  will  produce  a 
good  crop  of  corn. 
Extremely  fertile  soils, 
however,  produce  a 
coarse  brush  not  de- 
sirable for  the  best 
brooms.  Light,  sandy 
soils  are  well  adapted 
to  growing  the  dwarf 
varieties.  The  cli- 
matic adaptations  of 
broomcorn  are  similar 

^  ^^  Qf  ^  other 

sorghums,  but  localities  in  which  frequent  rains  occur  at 
the  time  of  harvest  are  not  well  adapted  to  this  crop, 
because  rain  at  this  time  injures  the  quality  of  the  brush. 
Oklahoma,  Illinois,  Kansas,  and  Texas  are  the  states 


FIG.  83.  —  Dwarf  and  standard  broomcorn. 


THE  ANNUAL   GRASSES  237 

leading  in  the  production  of  broomcorn,  in  1909  the 
production  of  these  states  being  over  90  per  cent  of 
the  entire  broomcorn  crop  of  the  United  States.  The 
yield  of  brush  per  acre  varies  greatly,  from  500  to  800 
pounds  of  the  standard  and  from  200  to  400  pounds  of 
the  dwarf  varieties  being  considered  good  yields.  The 
price  varies  from  year  to  year  with  the  supply.  In 
years  of  large  production  the  price  goes  down,  while  in 
years  of  small  production  the  price  is  high.  In  1909,  a 
year  of  partial  crop  failure,  the  price  reached  $200  per 
ton,  while  in  other  years,  of  overproduction,  the  price  has 
sometimes  fallen  as  low  as  $25  or  $30  per  ton.  The 
average  price  for  the  standard  type  is  probably  from  $80 
to  $100  per  ton,  while  that  of  the  dwarf  is  often  higher. 

238.  Cultural     methods.  —  Standard      varieties      are 
planted  in  rows  from  3|  to  4  feet  apart,  with  the  plants 
from  3  to  5  inches  apart  in  the  rows.     The  rows  for  dwarf 
varieties  may  be  made  3  to  3|  feet  apart,  with  the  plants 
from  2  to  4  inches  apart  in  the  rows.     Broomcorn  should 
not  be  planted  near  other  sorghums,  if  seed  is  to  be  saved 
from  the  field,  since  it  readily  mixes  with  the  other  sor- 
ghums.    The  seed  is  usually  planted  just  after  corn  plant- 
ing, since  it  requires  the  soil  to  be  well  warmed  up  before 
it  will   grow  readily.     The  cultivation  during  the  early 
stages  of  growth  is  similar  to  that  of  corn. 

239.  Harvesting.  —  For  the  best  quality  of  brush,  the 
harvesting  should  be  done  at  the  time  when  the  flowers 
are  in  full  bloom.     The  heads  from  the  standard  varieties 
may  be  more  easily  removed  if  the  plants  are  bent  down 
or  "  tabled."     The  heads  may  then  be  removed  with  a 
sharp  knife,  and  laid  on  the  table  formed  by  the  bent-over 
stalks,  for  partial  curing.     The  dwarf  varieties  need  not 
be  tabled,  and  the  heads  are  usually  pulled  out.     The 


238  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

heads,  after  cutting  or  pulling,  are  sorted,  the  crooked  or 
coarse  strawed  heads  being  laid  aside  to  use  in  the  making 
of  cheaper  brooms.  The  immature  seeds  and  glumes  are 
then  removed  from  the  heads  by  a  combing  device  or 
thrasher,  after  which  the  brush  is  dried  or  cured  in  the 
shed,  to  prevent  bleaching.  After  curing,  the  brush  is 
pressed  into  bales  of  400  to  500  pounds,  and  in  this  form 
is  placed  on  the  market. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  LEGUMES  IN  GENERAL 

THE  Leguminosse  -family  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
of  the  great  group  of  flowering  plants.  The  family  is  a 
very  large  one,  containing  over  10,000  species,  which  have 
been  grouped  into  487  genera.  Members  of  this  family 
may  be  found  growing  in  all  parts  of  the  world  where 
flowering  plants  exist.  They  are  to  be  found  in  the  hottest 
parts  of  the  tropics  and  in  the  cold  climates  of  the  North. 
They  vary  in  size  from  the  tiny  plants  that  grow  unnoticed 
by  the  wayside,  to  the  giant  trees  of  the  forest.  The  most 
prominent  trees  that  belong  to  this  family  are  the  locust, 
mahogany,  and  Kentucky  coffee  tree.  About  one-fourth 
of  the  members  of  the  Leguminosse  family  are  woody 
plants,  most  of  which  grow  in  the  tropics.  The  remainder 
are  herbaceous  and  are  more  widely  spread  over  the  world. 
Botanists  have  divided  the  members  of  this  family  into 
three  sub-families,  namely,  Csesalpinese,  Mimoseae,  and 
Papilionacese.  The  species  included  in  the  first  two 
groups  are  almost  entirely  tropical  and  hold  little  of 
importance  for  the  agriculturalist ;  the  Papilionaceae, 
however,  includes  some  of  the  most  important  and  useful 
plants  that  engage  the  attention  of  the  farmer. 

240.  Description.  —  The  Papilionaceae,  or  pea  family, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  usually  regarded  not  as  a  fam- 
ily, but  as  a  sub-family  of  the  Leguminosse,  is  so  named 
because  of  the  resemblance  of  the  flowers  of  this  group 

239 


240  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

of  plants  to  a  butterfly,  the  Latin  name  of  which  is 
papilio.  The  plants  of  this  sub-family  are  divided  into 
several  genera,  about  a  dozen  of  which  contain  the  im- 
portant agricultural  species.  In  the  older  use  of  the  term 
"  legume  "  it  included  all  of  the  members  of  the  Legumi- 
nosae,  but  it  is  now  frequently  used  in  agricultural  litera- 
ture as  including  only  the  cultivated  members  of  Papil- 
ionacese.  While  the  members  of  Papilionacese  vary 
greatly  in  size,  shape  of  their  parts,  and  in  their  manner 
of  growth,  they  have  several  features  in  common  that 
distinguish  them  from  the  grasses  and  other  families 
containing  agricultural  plants.  Unlike  the  grasses,  they 
have  a  tap  root  which  varies  in  depth  of  growth  and  man- 
ner of  branching.  In  some  species,  as  in  the  white  clover, 
the  stoloniferous  habit  is  more  or  less  strongly  developed, 
while  in  others,  as  the  pea  or  bean,  no  stolons  are  present. 
The  leaves  consist  of  three  or  more  leaflets  carried  on  a 
leaf-stalk  or  petiole  with  stipules  or  leafy  outgrowths  at 
its  base,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  stipules  being  a  feature  of 
importance  for  the  identification  of  many  species.  As  in 
the  grasses,  the  leaves  are  arranged  alternately  and  spirally 
on  the  stem  and  branches. 

241.  The  flowers  are  one  of  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  Papilionacese,  and,  as  was  pointed  out,  bear  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  a  butterfly.  The  flowers  are 
made  up  of  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistil.  The  corolla 
is  made  up  of  five  petals  which  are  unequal  in  size.  The 
largest  and  most  conspicuous  one  is  called  the  standard. 
The  two  that  grow  out  laterally,  one  from  each  side,  are 
at  more  or  less  right  angles  to  the  standard,  and  are 
known  as  the  wings.  The  other  two  are  more  or  less 
coherent  along  one  margin  and  form  a  boat-shaped  struc- 
ture called  the  "keel,"  in  which  the  stamens  and  pistil 


LEGUMES  IN  GENERAL  241 

are  inclosed.  There  are  usually  ten  stamens,  nine  of 
which  are  grown  together  a  considerable  part  of  their 
length,  forming  a  tube  with  a  split  along  one  side  which  is 
filled  by  the  tenth  stamen.  Inclosed  within  the  stamen 
tube  is  the  ovary,  which  contains  from  one  to  many 
ovules.  The  flowers  may  arise  singly,  as  in  the  cowpea, 


.      FIG.  84.  —  Flowers  of  alfalfa. 

or  they  may  be  distributed  along  a  stem,  forming  a  raceme, 
as  in  vetch,  or  from  the  end  of  a  branch  in  a  whorl,  form- 
ing an  umbel,  as  in  red  clover,  or  they  may  be  arranged 
along  a  branch  in  a  head-like  cluster  or  spike,  as  in  the 
crimson  clover. 

The  fruit  is  a  legume  or  a  pod,  which,  when  mature, 
usually  splits  open  along  both  edges.  From  the  form  of 
the  fruit  the  family  Leguminosse  gets  its  name. 

Another  way  in  which  the  legumes  are  markedly  dif- 


242  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

ferent  from  the  grasses  is  in  the  structure  of  the  seed. 
The  seeds  of  the  grasses  have  a  relatively  small  embryo, 
and  a  large  endosperm,  while  those  of  the  legumes  have  a 
very  large  embryo,  which  completely  fills  the  seed  coat. 
It  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  endosperm  and  to  the  large 
proportion  of  embryo,  which  contains  a  high  percentage 
of  nitrogen,  that  the  legumes  are  so  highly  prized  for 
their  nitrogenous  feeding  value. 

242.    Pollination.  —  Unlike  most  members  of  the  grass 
family  in  which  the  pollen  is  spread  by  the  wind,  the  flowers 


FIG.  85.  —  Legume  flower.  FIG.  86.  —  Cross  section. 

of  the  legumes  are  so  constructed  that  they  require  the 
services  of  certain  insects  to  carry  the  pollen  for  them. 
The  following  quotation  from  Percival  tells  how,  with 
their  conspicuous  flowers,  they  attract  the  insects,  and 
in  return  for  the  nectar  given  them  in  payment  for  their 
visit,  they  unwittingly  extract  from  them  a  friendly 
service.  "  The  flowers  of  the  Papilionacese  are  all 
specially  adapted  for  insect  pollination.  The  l  standard  ' 
acts  as  a  conspicuous  attractive  banner.  The  '  wings  ' 
and  '  keel '  petals  are  often  interlocked  near  their  bases 
in  such  a  manner  that  when  an  insect  of  sufficient  weight 
alights  on  the  '  wings/  the  latter  are  pressed  downwards 


LEGUMES  IN  GENERAL  243 

and  these  in  turn  depress  the  '  keel '  petals ;  the  stamens, 
style,  and  stigma  are  by  this  movement  forced  out  at  the 
apex  of  the  '  keel/  and  the  pollen  is  brought  into  contact 
with  the  underneath  part  of  the  insect's  body.  The  in- 
sect visiting  other  flowers  brings  the  pollen  on  its  body  into 
contact  with  the  stigma  of  the  flower,  which,  on  account 
of  its  length  and  position,  is  generally  forced  out  first  from 
the  apex  of  the  '  keel ' ;  cross  pollination  is  thus  effected. 

"  Some  plants,  such  as  the  garden  and  field  pea,  sweet 
pea,  the  vetches  and  trefoil,  while  undoubtedly  possessing 
flowers  specially  adapted  for  insect  pollination,  are  ca- 
pable of  self-pollination,  and  are  fertile  and  able  to  produce 
seeds  when  insects  are  excluded.  Others,  such  as  the 
red,  white,  and  crimson  clovers  and  the  broad  bean,  are 
more  or  less  sterile  when  insects  are  prevented  from 
visiting  the  flowers." 

243.  Much  controversy  has  arisen  regarding  the  im- 
portance of  insects  in  the  pollination  of  the  clovers,  and 
their  influence  on  the  seed  crop.  Several  experiment 
stations  have  conducted  tests  to  determine  whether  or 
not  insects  are  responsible  for  the  clover  seed  crop.  The 
test  consists  in  protecting  small  areas  of  clover  by  frames 
covered  with  wire  screen.  In  some  of  the  cages  are 
placed  insects  of  various  kinds,  while  in  others  no  insects 
are  permitted  to  visit  the  flowers.  The  report  on  the 
following  page  of  a  test  conducted  on  red  clover  by  the 
North  Dakota  Station  shows  the  importance  of  insects. 

The  results  show  that  the  bumble-bees  were  responsible 
for  about  95  per  cent  of  the  seed  formed  in  the  protected 
cages.  While  heads  selected  growing  in  the  fields  showed 
a  larger  percentage  of  seeds  per  head,  it  was  pointed  out 
that  the  bumble-bees  in  the  cages,  being  confined,  were 
not  under  normal  conditions  : 


244 


FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 


PERCENTAGE 

TREATMENT 

No.  OF 
HEADS 

FLOWERS 
PER  HEAD 

SEEDS  PER 
HEAD 

OF  SEED-PRO- 
DUCING 
FLOWERS  PER 

HEAD 

Protected  (no  insects) 

14 

103.5 

5.9 

5.7 

Hand-rubbed      .     .     .    *• 

3 

111. 

2.6 

2.3 

Field          ;  • 

10 

134. 

83.6 

62.4 

Miscellaneous          insects 

£flies,  moths,  small  bees) 

70 

93.5 

2.2 

2.4 

Bumble-bees  (5  per  cage)  . 

68 

92.5 

43.5 

47. 

Some  farmers  contend  that  there  are  not  enough  bumble- 
bees during  any  one  season  to  bring  about  pollination  in 
all  of  the  flowers  that  produce  seeds.  Dr.  Hopkins,  in 
reply  to  this  argument,  says  that  he  has  observed  a  bumble- 
bee going  through  the  motion  of  putting  its  bill  into  a 
clover  bloom  and  withdrawing  it,  thirty-four  times  per 
minute,  operating  during  this  time  upon  seven  heads. 
It  is  possible,  as  is  indicated  in  the  experiment  above 
quoted,  that  insects  other  than  bumble-bees  may  bring 
about  some  pollination,  and  it  is  also  probable  that  self- 
pollination  is  effected  in  some  cases.  Scientists  generally 
agree  that  the  bumble-bee  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
pollination  of  the  clovers,  and  that  their  number  in  a 
given  season  has  some  close  correlation  with  the  yield  of 
clover  seed  obtained. 

Recently  there  has  been  placed  on  the  market  a  pollinat- 
ing machine,  which,  it  is  asserted,  when  run  over  a  clover 
field  in  bloom,  will  so  rub  the  clover  heads  as  to  cause 
self-pollination.  The  North  Dakota  Station,  in  the  ex- 
periment reported  above,  found  that  the  rubbing  of  the 
heads  did  not  produce  pollination.  Experience  with 


LEGUMES  IN   GENERAL  245 

the  machines  seems  to  indicate  that  they  are  of  little 
service  in  the  pollination  of  clover. 

244.  Relation  to  soil  fertility.  —  The  great  favor  now 
accorded  the  legumes   as   field   crops  is  not   due   to    a 
recent   recognition   of   their   importance   in   maintaining 
soil  fertility,  for  many  centuries  ago  Roman  writers  on 
agricultural  topics  attested  to  their  soil-enriching  value. 
In  more  recent  times,  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Jethro  Tull,  an  Englishman,  wrote  a  treatise  on 
agriculture,  in  which  he  called  attention  to  the  increased 
yields  obtained  from  grain  crops  on  soils  that  had  pre- 
viously grown  legumes.     While  it  was  early  known  that 
the   legumes   possessed   some   soil   enriching   virtue   not 
possessed  by  the  non-leguminous  crops,  the  reason  for 
it  was  a  matter  of  no  little  speculation. 

245.  It  was  thought  by  many  that  the  peculiar  value  of 
the  legumes  was  due  to  the  fact  that  they  possessed  roots 
that  penetrated  deeply  into  the  subsoil  and  thus  were 
able  to  secure  much  of  their  nourishment  from  a  depth 
beyond  the  reach  of  other  crops.     A  part  of  this  plant 
food  was  thought  to  be  stored  in  the  roots  and  stubble 
near  the  surface,  later  to  become  available  to  succeeding 
crops.     Liebig,  a  German  chemist,  held  the  opinion  that 
plants  received  their  nitrogen  and  carbon  from  the  air, 
and  that  the  clovers,  on  account  of  their  broad  leaves,  were 
able  to  take  up  more  nitrogen  than  the  other  crops.     This 
theory,  however,  was  not  long  accepted  as  explaining  the 
matter,  for  Boussingault,  in  France,  in  1851,  and  Laws  and 
Gilbert,  in  England,  in  1857,  demonstrated,  by  a  series 
of  experiments,  that  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  was  not 
available  to  the  legumes.     In  1883  Atwater,  at  the  Con- 
necticut Experiment  Station,  grew  a  number  of  kinds  of 
plants  in  pots,  analyzing  the  soil  before  planting,  and  then 


246  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

analyzing  the  plant,  together  with  the  soil,  at  the  end  of 
the  experiment.  He  found  that,  while  in  most  cases  there 
was  no  gain  in  nitrogen,  in  some  there  was  an  increase  of 
as  much  as  50  per  cent.  In  every  case  where  there  was 
a  gain  in  nitrogen,  it  was  in  a  pot  where  a  legume  had 
grown.  Three  years  later,  1886,  Hellriegel,  a  German 
scientist,  solved  the  perplexing  problem.  By  a  series  of 
pot  tests  with  legumes,  he  found  that  in  sterile  soil  there 
was  no  gain  in  nitrogen,  the  plants  growing  for  only  a 
short  time  before  they  withered  and  died.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  those  pots  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
leached  from  a  soil  that  had  previously  grown  the  legume 
successfully,  was  added  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment, 
the  plants  grew  vigorously  and  there  was  an  increase  in 
the  nitrogen  content  above  that  which  was  contained  in 
the  seed.  Upon  examination  it  was  found  that  the  plant 
showing  a  gain  in  nitrogen  invariably  possessed  tubercles 
or  nodules  on  the  roots,  while  none  were  to  be  found  on 
those  that  showed  no  gain  in  nitrogen.  Hellriegel  there- 
fore advanced  the  theory  that  the  bacteria  in  the  nodules 
have  a  direct  relation  to  the  taking  up  of  free  nitrogen  by 
the  plant,  which  has  since  been  established  by  numerous 
experiments.  Hellriegel,  however,  was  not  the  first  to 
observe  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of  legumes,  for  in  1687 
Malpighi,  an  Italian,  wrote  about  them,  calling  them 
galls.  For  many  years  the  nodules  were  thought  to  be 
the  result  of  disease  on  the  roots.  Later,  however,  they 
were  supposed  by  some  to  be  enlargements  of  the  roots  in 
which  reserve  plant  food  was  stored.  In  1866  a  Russian 
botanist  discovered  that  the  nodules  were  filled  with 
bacteria.  Beijerink  was  the  first  to  isolate  the  bacteria 
and  grow  them  in  pure  culture  on  artificial  media.  He 
named  them  Bacillus  radicicola. 


LEGUMES  IN   GENERAL  247 

It  is  very  interesting  to  know  that  while  the  soil-enrich- 
ing value  of  the  legumes  was  known  soon  after  the  dawn 
of  the  Christian  era,  it  has  taken  almost  1900  years  to 
discover  to  what  this  peculiar  virtue  is  due. 

246.  Bacteria  in  relation  to  legumes.  —  The  exact 
relation  that  exists  between  the  bacteria  in  the  nodules 
and  the  host  plant  is  not  definitely  known.  Present 
information  on  this  subject,  however,  shows  that  the 
plant  and  the  bacteria  enter  into  a  partnership,  the  result 
of  which  is  mutual  benefit.  This  relationship  is  called 
symbiosis.  The  bacteria  which  are  in  the  soil  enter  the 
plant  root  through  the  root  hair  and  work  their  way 
further  into  the  root,  which,  because  of  their  presence, 
makes  an  abnormal  growth,  forming  a  nodule.  When 
once  in  the  root,  the  bacteria  rapidly  increase  in  numbers 
by  division,  and  as  they  increase  the  nodule  enlarges. 
The  mutual  benefit  of  this  partnership  is  derived  from 
barter,  in  which  the  bacteria  trade  nitrogen  to  the  plant, 
in  return  for  all  of  the  other  elements  necessary  to  their 
growth.  The  advantage  of  this  partnership  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  plant  is  unable  to  use  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  air,  while  the  bacteria  draw  it  in  large  amounts 
from  this  source  and  use  it  to  build  up  their  own  structure, 
and  when  they  die  the  nitrogen  from  their  decomposed 
bodies  becomes  available  to  the  plant.  It  seems  that  the 
greater  percentage  of  the  bacteria  are  not  long  lived,  but 
soon  die,  supplying  the  plant  with  this  necessary  element 
of  plant  food.  Support  for  this  belief  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  nodules  are  smaller,  softer,  and  nearly  empty 
of  bacteria  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season.  However, 
not  all  of  them  die.  Some  few  remain  alive,  and  as  the 
roots  decay,  find  their  way  back  into  the  soil  until  another 
plant  comes  forth  with  which  to  form  a  new  partnership. 


248  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

247.  Bacteria  in  relation  to  different  legumes.  —  Since 
the  bacteria  may  enter  any  of  the  root  hairs,  there  is  no 
uniformity  in  the  arrangement  of  the  nodules  on  the  roots. 
There  are,  however,  characteristic  shapes  of  nodules  for 
the  various  species  of  legumes.     This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  each  species  has  a  slightly  different  kind  of  root 
development,    and,   when  penetrated   by  bacteria,    they 
produce  distinguishing  types  of  nodules.     It  may  be  due 
also  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  same  kinds  of  bacteria  do 
not  work  on  all  kinds  of  leguminous  plants,  but  that  each 
species  enters  into  partnership  with  a  special  variety  of 
bacteria.     Thus  we  have  the  red  clover  variety  of  bac- 
teria, the  soy  bean  variety,  etc.     The  bacteria  that  form 
the  nodules  on  the  roots  of  red  clover  will  not  grow  on 
the  roots  of  the  soy  bean,  and  vice  versa.     Sometimes, 
however,  one  variety  of  bacteria  may  form  nodules  on 
two  or  more  species  of  legumes;   thus  the  same  bacteria 
will  grow  equally  well  on  the  roots  of  alfalfa,  sweet  clover, 
and  bur  clover.     It  is  probable  that  the  various  kinds  of 
leguminous  bacteria  are  not  distinct  species,  but  varieties 
of  Bacillus  radicicola. 

248.  Adaptation   and   distribution   of   bacteria.  —  Cer- 
tain conditions  of  the  soil  seem  to  retard  the  growth,  and 
in  some  cases  completely  prevent  the  activities  of  the 
leguminous  bacteria.     The  different  varieties  of  bacteria 
of  course  have  widely  differing  adaptations,  but  almost 
all  varieties  are  sensitive  to  acid  soils.     While  the  variety 
that  grows  on  the  roots  of  alsike  clover  may  grow  in  acid 
soils,  they  grow  much  better  in  soils  well  supplied  with 
lime.     The  variety  that  grows  on  the  roots  of  alfalfa  and 
almost   all   other  cultivated  legumes  is  almost  dormant 
in  acid  soils.     Neither  do  they  thrive  in  wet  soils,  and 
frequently  drainage  is  necessary  to  secure  their  services 


LEGUMES  IN  GEN  SEAL  249 

for  many  leguminous  crops.  Under  certain  conditions 
the  partnership  between  the  plant  and  the  bacteria,  even 
though  the  latter  are  present,  is  not  perfected.  When 
the  soil  contains  nitrogen  in  large  amounts,  the  plant 
draws  its  supply  from  the  soil,  and  the  bacteria  lose  many 
of  their  activities  and  put  forth  little  effort  to  penetrate 
the  plant  root.  It  is  not  usually  desirable,  therefore,  to 
use  nitrogenous  fertilizers  in  connection  with  leguminous 


FIG.  87.  —  Applying  lime  to  the  land. 

crops.  Sometimes,  however,  when  the  soil  is  especially 
deficient  in  this  element,  a  light  application  of  nitrate 
of  soda  is  beneficial  in  starting  the  plants  so  that  they  may 
make  sufficient  growth  for  the  forming  of  symbiotic  re- 
lations with  the  bacteria. 

The  bacteria  are  distributed  over  the  country  in  various 
ways.  The  most  important  agencies  are  wind,  water,  and 
the  transportation  of  hay  and  seeds.  The  diminutive 
size  of  the  bacteria  makes  possible  their  wide  distribution 
by  the  wind  in  connection  with  small  particles  of  soil, 
leaves,  and  other  vegetation.  The  water  also  carries 
them  long  distances  in  the  time  of  high  water.  The  ship- 


250 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


ment,  from  one  place  to  another,  of  hay  and  seeds  to 
which  the  bacteria  may  cling,  is  also  an  important  agency 
in  their  distribution. 

249.  Inoculation.  —  In  sections  of  the  country  where  a 
legume  has  been  grown  for  many  years,  the  bacteria  that 
work  upon  its  roots  may  usually  be  found  in  almost  all 
soils.     Thus,  when  red  clover  has  been  grown  for  years 

in  a  community,  no 
difficulty  is  usually  ex- 
perienced from  a  lack 
of  the  proper  variety 
of  bacteria.  Some- 
times, however,  the 
bacteria  of  certain 
crops  are  not  generally 
distributed,  especially 
in  sections  of  the 
country  where  the 
legume  is  a  new  crop. 
Thus  the  variety  that 
forms  the  nodules  upon 
the  roots  of  alfalfa  is 
not  generally  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  When 
they  are  not  present,  if  the  best  results  from  the  crop  are 
to  be  secured,  they  must  be  supplied  artificially.  While 
the  crop  may  sometimes  be  grown  without  the  aid  of  the 
bacteria,  it  is  not  usually  desirable  to  do  so,  because  the 
plants  then  must  draw  upon  the  nitrogen  supply  of  the 
soil,  and,  like  non-leguminous  plants,  they  then  become 
soil  exhausters  instead  of  soil  builders.  Supplying  the 
bacteria  artificially  is  called  inoculation. 

250.  Methods  of  inoculation.  —  The  general  methods 
employed  in  inoculation  are :  by  applying  prepared  cul- 


FIG.  88.  —  Nodules  on  the  roots  of  soy 
beans. 


LEGUMES  IN  GENERAL  251 

tures,  by  sowing  a  small  quantity  of  seed  with  other 
crops,  and  by  adding  to  the  field  a  small  quantity  of  soil 
containing  the  bacteria. 

The  first  method  is  that  of  securing  from  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  State  Experiment 
Station,  or  from  a  commercial  firm,  pure  cultures  of  the 
bacteria,  which,  when  put  into  suitable  growing  media, 
multiply  very  rapidly  The  solution  containing  the  bac- 
teria, after  a  sufficient  number  have  been  produced,  may 
be  applied  to  the  seed,  which  is  sown  in  the  usual  way, 
after  drying.  It  may  also  be  used  in  sprinkling  a  small 
quantity  of  soil,  which  is  then  spread  over  the  field  and 
harrowed  in. 

The  second  method  has  been  practiced  successfully  by 
many  farmers,  especially  in  inoculating  for  alfalfa.  This 
method  consists  in  sowing  a  small  quantity  of  seed  on  the 
field  two  or  three  years  before  it  is  seeded  to  the  permanent 
crop.  Sometimes  two  or  three  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  are 
mixed  with  the  red  clover  seed  and  sowed  with  it.  A 
small  amount  of  seed  may  be  sown  with  the  oats  in  the 
spring.  Some  bacteria  are  carried  to  the  soil  with  the 
seed,  and  here  and  there  over  the  field  there  will  be  a  few 
plants  that  will  become  inoculated,  and  after  a  time  the 
soil  of  the  entire  field  will  become  inoculated. 

251.  The  third  method  is  more  generally  employed, 
and  is  the  one  that  is  usually  recommended.  This  method 
consists  in  getting  soil  from  a  field  that  has  previously 
grown  the  crop  successfully  and  spreading  it  over  the 
field  to  be  inoculated.  Thus  the  bacteria  will  be  intro- 
duced with  the  soil,  and  they  will  be  present  to  begin 
their  work  on  the  plant  roots  as  soon  as  the  latter  are 
large  enough.  In  getting  the  soil  from  an  old  field,  one 
should  be  sure  that  it  contains  the  desirable  bacteria. 


252  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

If  a  plant  is  carefully  dug  out  and  the  roots  examined, 
the  presence  of  the  nodules  will  insure  the  presence  of 
the  bacteria. 

The  amount  of  soil  to  apply  will  depend  upon  the  ease 
of  getting  it.  If  the  soil  is  close  at  hand,  a  liberal  appli- 
cation should  be  made,  but  if  it  is  necessary  to  transport 
it  some  distance,  a  smaller  amount,  carefully  spread  over 
the  field,  will  usually  introduce  a  sufficient  number  of 
bacteria  to  insure  inoculation.  From  200  to  800  pounds 
per  acre  may  be  used,  the  amount  depending  upon  the 
ease  of  procuring  it.  The  soil  should  be  taken  from  the 
first  four  or  five  inches  of  the  surface  soil,  and  spread  over 
the  new  field  late  in  the  afternoon,  or  on  a  cloudy  day. 
Direct  sunlight  is  a  strong  bactericide,  and  if  the  soil  is 
spread  over  the  field  in  direct  sunlight,  many  of  the  bac- 
teria may  be  killed.  The  soil  should  be  harrowed 
immediately  after  the  application.  The  grower  should 
exercise  care  in  getting  the  soil,  as  fungous  and  bacterial 
diseases,  or  weed  seeds,  may  be  introduced  at  the  same 
time  as  the  desirable  bacteria. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  CLOVERS 

PROBABLY  no  other  group  of  forage  plants  is  so  well  and 
so  favorably  known  throughout  a  considerable  part  of 
the  country  as  are  the  clovers.  They  are  to  be  found  in 
meadows  and  pastures,  in  lawns  and  along  the  roadsides, 
where  with  their  sweet  smelling  blossoms  and  oval  leaves 
they  are  set  forth  in  deep  contrast  to  the  odorless  flowers 
and  long  narrow  leaves  of  the  grasses  with  which  they 
are  growing.  The  favor  accorded  them,  however,  is  not 
due  to  their  beauty  alone,  for  they  are  among  the  most 
useful  and  valuable  plants.  The  farmer  probably  thinks 
first  of  all  of  their  value  and  perhaps  not  at  all  of  their 
beauty.  The  clovers  belong  to  the  genus  Trifolium  of 
the  Leguminosce  family.  Often  in  common  usage  the 
term  clovers  includes  other  members  of  this  family  that 
do  not  belong  to  the  genus  Trifolium,  such  as  alfalfa  and 
the  sweet  clovers.  The  only  true  clovers,  however,  are 
members  of  this  genus,  and  while  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover 
are  closely  related  to  them,  they  may  not  properly  be 
classed  as  clovers.  There  are  over  200  species  of  this 
genus  found  growing  throughout  the  world,  and  more 
than  60  species  are  found  in  America.  Of  this  number, 
however,  only  those  of  agricultural  importance  will  be 
discussed  in  this  chapter. 

253 


254  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


RED     CLOVER 

252.  History.  —  This  "  Red  Plumed  Knight,"  as  it  has 
been  dubbed  by  one  of  its  admirers,  is  a  native  of  Persia, 
and  from  there  it  spread  through  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  where  for  many  years  it  has  been  an  important 
factor  in  the  maintaining  of  a  permanent  system  of  ag- 
riculture.    It  was  introduced  into  Pennsylvania,  probably 
from  Holland,  almost  150  years  ago.     Since  that  time 
the  area  of  its  culture  has  gradually  extended  and  now  it 
holds  a  most  important  place  in  the  esteem  of  the  American 
farmer.     While  it  is  most  commonly  known  as  red  clover, 
it  is  also  known  as  broad-leafed  clover,  common  clover, 
medium   clover,   and  medium   red    clover.     It  is   called 
medium  clover  or  medium  red  clover  to    distinguish  it 
from  the  mammoth  clover,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

253.  Description.  —  Red    clover,     Trifolium   pratense, 
is  the  most  commonly  grown  and  is  perhaps  the  most 
valuable  species  of  the  genus  Trifolium.     It  has  a  large, 
well-developed  root  system,  made  up  of  a  tap  root,  which 
may  extend  several  feet  into  the  ground,  and  numerous 
lateral  branches  which  grow  out  from  it  a  few  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.     The  tap  root  grows  almost 
directly  downward  and  undoubtedly  is  of  great  service  to 
the  plant  in  obtaining  water  from  the  deep  subsoil  in 
time  of  drought.     Sometimes  the  tap  root  is  broken  off  by 
the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  during  a  severe  winter, 
and  the  plant,  thus  released  from  its  anchorage,  is  pushed 
up  out  of  the  ground  for  some  distance.     This  is  known 
as  heaving  and  is  decidedly  injurious  to  the  plants,  some- 
times destroying  entire  fields  of  them.     When  the  clover 
plant  is  quite  young,  the  crown,  that  is,  the  short  stem 
and  top  of  the  tap  root,  may  be  quite  a  little   distance 


THE  CLOVERS 


255 


above  the  ground.  To  protect  it  from  the  sickle  or  from 
grazing  animals,  the  tap  root  as  if  possessed  with  fore- 
thought contracts  or  shortens  up,  thus  drawing  the  crown 
down  into  the  soil.  Like  other  legumes,  red  clover  forms 
a  partnership  with  a  certain  species  of  bacteria  and  they 
work  together  in  harmony.  The  nodules  produced  by 
the  bacteria  are  at  first 

almost   spherical,    but  A  mm 

later  they  become  pear-  ^  <* 

shaped.  They  are  not 
so  large  as  the  nodules 
found  on  the  roots  of 
peas  or  beans,  but  they 
are  more  numerous. 

254.  The  main  stem 
of  the  red  clover  plant 
is  made  up  of  many 
very  short  internodes, 
and  seldom  grows  over 
an  inch  or  two  in 
height.  From  the 
nodes,  however,  many 
leaves  grow  out,  and 
later  branches  grow 
out  between  them  and 
the  main  stem.  The 
number  of  branches  produced  varies  with  the  conditions 
of  growth,  but  usually  from  6  to  18  are  produced.  From 
the  nodes  of  the  main  branches  other  branches  are  pro- 
duced, which  in  turn  give  rise  to  still  other  branches, 
so  that  when  full  grown,  a  many  branched,  bushy  plant 
results.  The  plants  vary  in  height  with  conditions  of 
growth,  but  usually  they  are  from  15  inches  to  2  feet 


FIG.  89.  — Red  clover. 


256  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

high.  Some  plants  grow  almost  erect,  while  with  others 
some  or  all  of  the  branches  may  be  decumbent  at  the 
base. 

255.  The  leaves  are  large  and  dark  green  in  color,  pos- 
sessing prominent  V-shaped  white  markings.     They  are 
usually  arranged  in  threes  all  of  which  grow  out  from  the 
end  of  the  petiole.     The  leaves  and  stems  are  covered 
with  a  fine  hair  or  down,  which  is  more  abundant  when 
the  plants  are  young.     At  the  end  of  each  branch  is  carried 
the  flowering  head,  usually  ovoid  or  spherical  in  shape, 
from  1  to  2  inches  in  length  and  composed  of  from  75  to 
200  small  red  or  pink  flowers,  closely  crowded  together. 

256.  The  seeds  vary  greatly  in  size  and  are  yellow  and 
purple  in  color.     Red  clover  seed  is  not  often  adulterated, 
although  weed  seeds  are  frequently  found  in  it.     The 
standard  of  purity  is  98  per  cent  and  the  germination 
from  85  to  90  per  cent.     The  legal  weight  per  bushel  is 
60  pounds.     Sometimes  some  of  the  seeds  are  so  hard  and 
the  seed  coat  is  so  impervious  that  when  planted  they 
are  not  able  to  absorb  the  amount  of  moisture  necessary 
for  germination.     Such  seeds  are  called   "  hard  seeds," 
and  in  newly  harvested  seed,  in  which  they  are  the  most 
abundant,  they  may  sometimes  amount  to  as  much  as 
40  or  50  per  cent.     The  hard  character  is  lost  in  time,  and 
when  the  seeds  are  sown  a  year  or  two  later,  almost  all 
of  them  will  germinate.     A  germination  test  before  sow- 
ing may  enable  the  grower  to  avoid  a  poor  stand  from  this 
trouble. 

257.  Distribution.  —  Red  clover  is  adapted  to  temper- 
ate climates  and  is  grown  throughout  the  temperate  regions 
of  Europe  and  parts  of  Asia.     In  the  United  States  it  may 
be  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  as  an 
important  cultivated  crop  it  is  confined  to  the  northeastern 


THE  CLOVERS  257 

part  of  the  country,  and  in  the  western  parts  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  States.  It  grows  at  its  best  in  what  is  known  as  the 
northern  corn  belt  states.  Here  it  is  usually  grown  in  the 
rotation,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  timothy  and 
other  grasses.  It  is  best  adapted  to  well-drained  loam 
soils,  which  are  sometimes  called  corn  soils.  While  it 


FIG.  90.  —  Effects  of  lime  on  growth  of  red  clover.  Plot  at  left 
received  no  lime ;  the  one  at  right  received  an  application  at  the 
rate  of  1000  pounds  of  quick  lime  per  acre. 

may  be  grown  on  soils  of  all  degrees  of  fertility,  except  the 
very  poorest,  it  is  not  well  adapted  to  clays,  as  are  the 
grasses.  Red  clover  cannot  withstand  severe  cold  nor 
extreme  heat,  and  for  that  reason  is  not  an  important 
crop  in  Canada  nor  in  the  Southern  States  of  the  United 
States.  Alfalfa  is  more  drought-resistant  and  largely 
takes  the  place  of  red  clover  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of 


258  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  West.  Red  clover  will  not  grow  in  wet  soils  as  will 
alsike,  which  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  it  in  undrained 
or  lowland  areas.  Soils  deficient  in  lime  are  not  well 
adapted  for  the  growing  of  red  clover,  and  sometimes  a 
stand  cannot  be  obtained  on  such  soils  until  they  are 
treated  with  lime. 

258.  Uses.  —  Red  clover  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
forage  crops  and  may  be  used  for  hay,  pasture,  or  for 
feeding  green  from  the  field.  As  a  hay  plant  it  is  es- 
pecially valuable  on  account  of  the  high  percentage  of 
protein  which  it  contains.  It  is  excellent  forage,  there- 
fore, to  feed  in  combination  with  low  protein  grain  rations. 
It  may  also  be  used  in  combination  with  low  protein 
forage,  such  as  corn  stover  or  timothy  hay.  As  a  pasture 
plant,  it  furnishes  excellent  grazing  for  all  kinds  of  live 
stock.  It  is  objectionable  as  a  pasture  for  horses  because 
of  its  tendency  to  produce  slobbers  when  they  are  pas- 
tured upon  it  exclusively.  It  also  produces  bloating  in 
cattle  when  they  are  not  accustomed  to  it,  but  if  they  are 
allowed  to  eat  of  it  but  sparingly  at  first,  little  trouble 
of  this  sort  may  be  expected.  Clover  does  not  stand 
tramping  well,  neither  does  it  thrive  after  close  cropping. 
As  a  pasture  it  is  best  used  in  combination  with  timothy  or 
other  grasses,  which  largely  overcome  the  above  objections 
to  it.  As  a  soiling  crop,  it  yields  fairly  well,  but  it  cannot 
compare  in  that  respect  with  corn  or  sorghum,  although 
it  possesses  greater  feeding  value  than  either  of  these  two. 
After  being  cut  for  soiling  purposes,  new  plants  spring  up 
and  a  second  cutting  may  be  made  during  the  season. 

One  of  the  reasons  why  red  clover  is  regarded  with  such 
favor  where  it  is  grown  is  because  of  its  value  in  maintain- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Being  a  legume,  it  is  able  to 
use  nitrogen  from  the  air ;  and  when  it  is  plowed  under  or 


THE  CLOVERS  259 

returned  to  the  field  in  the  form  of  manure,  a  considerable 
amount  of  this  element,  which  may  then  be  utilized  in 
the  growing  of  other  crops,  is  added  to  the  soil.  It  is 
especially  valuable  for  this  purpose  because,  being  a 
biennial  or  a  short-lived  perennial,  it  is  well  adapted  to 
a  short  rotation. 

259.  Cultural  methods.  —  Red  clover  is  usually  seeded 
with  a  nurse  crop,  the  reason  for  this  being  that  if  seeded 
alone  it  cannot  be  expected  to  produce  a  full  crop  the  first 
year.     Thus  the  grower  would  lose  the  use  of  the  land  for 
the  season.     However,  if  it  is  seeded  with  a  nurse  crop, 
the  clover  makes  its  first  year's  growth  along  with  the 
nurse  crop  without  decreasing  the  yield  of  either  of  them. 
The  choice  of  a  nurse  crop  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
crops  that  are  grown  regularly  in  the  rotation.     Most 
often  the  clover  is  seeded  with  the  small  grain  crop,  which 
may  be  wheat,  oats,  rye,  or  barley,  the  choice  depending 
upon  the  grower's  rotation  practice.     When  wheat  enters 
the  rotation,   clover   is   usually  seeded  with   it.     When 
oats,  rye,  or  barley  replace  wheat  in  the  rotation,  it  is 
seeded  with  them.     When  seeded  with  wheat  or  rye,  the 
clover  may  be  applied  either  in  the  fall  with  the  wheat,  or 
it  may  be  sown  in  the  early  .spring.     When  seeded  in  the 
fall,  the  clover  is  usually  spread  by  the  seeding  attachment 
in  connection  with  the  grain  drill,  which  may  be  adjusted 
to  scatter  the  seed  either  in  front  of  or  behind  the  drill 
hoes.     When  seeding  in  the  fall,  best  results  are  usually 
obtained  if  the  seeding  is  done  early.     At  the  Ohio  and 
Indiana  stations  seedings  made  later  than  early  September 
were  usually  unsuccessful. 

260.  When  seeding  is  delayed  until  spring,  the  seed 
may  be  applied  with  a  hand  seeder  in  late  February  or 
early  March,  in  which  case  the  alternate  freezing  and 


260  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

thawing  of  the  ground  will  sufficiently  cover  it,  or  the 
seeding  may  be  done  later,  when  the  soil  is  dry  enough, 
and  covered  with  a  light  harrow.  If  the  latter  method 
is  followed,  the  seeding  should  not  be  delayed  until  too 
late  in  the  spring,  or  else  the  wheat  will  become  too  large 
to  permit  of  the  proper  covering  of  the  clover  seed.  Some 
growers  object  to  covering  the  seed  with  the  harrow, 
contending  that  by  this  practice  the  wheat  will  be  injured, 
but  various  experiments  have  proven  that,  instead  of 
being  injured,  more  frequently  the  yield  is  increased,  due 
probably  to  the  cultivation  which  assists  in  conserving 
moisture.  When  seeded  with  a  spring  grain  like  oats  or 
spring  barley,  the  application  is  made  along  with  the 
grain  as  in  the  fall  seeding  with  wheat.  Rye  is  the  most 
favorable  nurse  crop,  because  it  does  not  shade  the  ground 
as  much  as  wheat  or  oats,  and  it  is  less  likely  to  lodge  and 
smother  the  young  clover  plants  later  in  the  season.  Oats 
produce  more  shade  than  either  wheat  or  barley,  and  are 
not  regarded  as  a  favorable  crop  with  which  to  sow  clover. 
However,  if  a  short-strawed  early  variety  is  grown,  little 
trouble  may  be  expected. 

261.  Sometimes  clover  is  sowed  in  the  corn  at  the  time 
of  the  last  cultivation.  The  chances  for  a  successful 
stand  by  this  method  are  doubtful,  unless  the  soil  is  in 
almost  perfect  physical  condition  and  free  from  weeds, 
and  unless  the  seeding  is  followed  by  frequent  rains.  On 
fertile  soils  in  sections  with  a  plentiful  rainfall  this  method 
is  quite  successful.  When  seeded  with  a  small  .grain 
crop,  the  clover  may  be  pastured  after  the  removal  of 
the  grain,  during  late  summer  and  early  fall,  without 
injury  to  the  crop  which  will  make  hay  or  pasture  the 
following  summer.  Clover  is  sometimes  seeded  in  com- 
bination with  timothy  or  other  grasses  for  hay  or  pasture. 


THE  CLOVERS  261 

Usually  the  seed  may  be  mixed  in  the  desired  proportions 
and  applied  together,  as  is  the  practice  when  clover  is 
seeded  with  a  nurse  crop.  Twelve  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre  is  considered  a  full  seeding  when  the  clover  is  seeded 
alone.  When  mixed  with  timothy,  from  6  to  10  pounds 
of  the  clover  seed  may  be  mixed  with  the  same  amount  of 
timothy.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  add  a  few  pounds 
of  alsike  or  white  clover  seed,  in  which  case  the  amount  of 
red  clover  seed  is  reduced  correspondingly. 

262.  Making  clover  hay.  —  The  proper  time  to  cut  for 
hay  is  when  the  plants  are  just  past  full  bloom  and  a  few 
of  the  blossoms  have  turned  brown.  If  cutting  is  delayed 


FIG.  91.  —  Cutting  clover  hay  that  gave  a  yield  of  over  3£  tons  per  acre. 


very  long  after  this  time,  many  of  the  leaves,  which  are 
easily  broken  off  when  the  plant  is  ripe,  will  be  lost  and 
the  quality  of  the  hay  thereby  greatly  injured.  If  pos- 
sible, the  clover  should  be  cut  in  the  afternoon,  since  the 
plants  then  contain  less  water  than  they  do  in  the  morning, 
and  a  shorter  time  will  be  required  for  curing.  Ordi- 
narily, when  the  hay  is  first  cut,  it  contains  from  65  to  80 
per  cent  of  water,  and  before  it  may  be  stored  in  the  stack 
or  mow  with  safety,  the  moisture  content  should  be 


262 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


reduced  to  18  or  20  per  cent.  The  curing  of  the  hay  is 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  the  tedder,  which  may  be 
used  the  next  morning  after  cutting  as  soon  as  the  dew  is 
off.  The  time  required  for  the  clover  to  cure  will  depend 
upon  its  maturity,  upon  the  dryness  of  the  ground  under 
it,  and  upon  the  sun  and  air.  Under  favorable  conditions 
it  may  be  dried  out  sufficiently  for  storing  in  20  to  24 
hours  after  cutting.  If  only  a  small  acreage  is  grown,  or 

_          _      if  plenty  of  labor  is  at 

hand,  the  leaves  may 
be  better  saved  and  a 
slightly  better  quality 
of  hay  may  be  secured 
if  the  hay  is  piled  into 
small  cocks,  when  in 


FIG.  92.  —  Using   the  tedder  on  a  heavy 
hay  crop. 


a  semi-cured  condi- 
tion, for  a  few  days 
before  storing. 

263.  Cutting  for 
seed.  —  Red  clover  is 
grown  primarily  for 
the  seed  in  but  few  lo- 
calities. The  seed  is 

usually  harvested  from  the  second  crop,  that  is,  from  the 
plants  which  spring  up  after  the  hay  crop  has  been  re- 
moved. This  practice  makes  possible  the  harvesting  of 
two  crops,  one  for  hay  and  one  for  seed,  during  the  same 
season.  Small  amounts  of  seed  are  produced  on  many 
farms  in  the  clover  growing  sections  of  the  country,  but 
the  greater  part  of  it  is  produced  in  Ohio,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Missouri. 
The  yield  of  seed  per  acre  varies  greatly  from  year  to 
year,  depending  much  upon  weather  conditions  and  upon 


THE  CLOVERS  263 

whether  or  not  certain  insect  enemies  are  present.  The 
largest  yields  of  seed  are  usually  obtained  when  the  hay 
crop  is  cut  early.  If  plenty  of  rain  to  start  the  second 
growth  follows  the  cutting,  and  then  if  dry  weather  pre- 
vails during  the  last  period  of  growth,  the  production  of 
seed  is  favored.  If  wet  weather  prevails  throughout  the 
growing  season,  the  plants  grow  tall  and  rank,  the  heads 
mature  little  seed,  and  the  second  crop  is  quite  likely  to 
be  more  valuable  for  hay  or  pasture  than  for  seed.  Early 
cutting  of  the  first  crop  is  favorable  to  a  large  production 
of  seed  because  in  this  case  the  seed  of  the  second  crop 
forms  early  and  may  thus  escape  the  attack  of  the  second 
brood  of  clover  seed  midge.  When  the  first  crop  is  har- 
vested for  seed,  it  is  best  to  clip  or  pasture  the  field  during 
the  fore  part  of  the  season  in  order  to  delay  the  blooming 
period  until  the  bumble-bees  are  more  plentiful  and  in 
order  to  avoid  the  attack  of  the  first  brood  of  the  clover 
seed  midge.  Clover  should  be  cut  for  seed  when  the 
heads  have  turned  brown  and  the  seeds  are  in  the  dough 
stage.  A  mower,  with  an  attachment  to  the  cutter  bar 
for  bunching,  or  a  self-rake,  may  be  used.  After  cutting, 
the  clover  may  be  piled  up  into  small  cocks  or  allowed  to 
cure  in  the  bunches  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  after  which  it  is 
ready  to  thrash.  The  straw  remaining  after  the  seed  has 
been  removed  is  of  little  value  as  feed.  The  yield  varies 
from  a  peck  to  as  much  as  5  bushels  per  acre,  2  bushels 
being  probably  an  average  yield.  The  seed  sells  on  the 
market  for  from  5  to  10  dollars  per  bushel,  which  when 
considered  in  connection  with  the  value  of  the  hay  crop 
secured  the  same  season,  makes  the  return  per  acre  very 
profitable.  However,  many  farmers  prefer  to  pasture  the 
second  crop  of  clover  and  buy  their  supply  of  seed  on  the 
market. 


264  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


MAMMOTH    CLOVER 

264.  M ammoth  clover,  Trifoliumpratense  v&T.perenne. — 
This    clover    is    considered    by    almost    all   agronomists 
to  be  a  variety  of  red  clover.     Some,  however,  give  it  the 
rank  of  a  distinct  species.     Evidence  of  its  being  a  variety 
of  the  red  clover  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  crosses 
with   it   quite   readily,    producing   various   intermediate 
forms.     It  is  so  like  red  clover  in  its  appearance  and  man- 
ner of  growth  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish 
one  from  the  other,  especially  when  individual  plants  are 
considered.     In  almost  all  cases  it  may  be  distinguished 
from  red  clover  by  its  larger,  ranker  growth,  and  its  more 
perennial   character.     Another   way  in  which   it   differs 
from  red  clover  is  that  it  is  from  3  to  4  weeks  later  in 
maturing  and  produces  but  one  crop  during  the  season. 
In  other  respects  it  is  quite  similar  to  red  clover;    even 
the  seeds  have  no  visible  difference,  and  they  cannot  be 
told  apart.     Mammoth  clover  is  sometimes  called  big 
clover,  perennial  red  clover,  and  sapling  clover. 

265.  Uses    of    mammoth    clover.  —  Mammoth    clover 
may  be  used  for  feeding  live  stock  in  the  form  of  hay, 
pasture,  or  as  a  soiling  crop.     It  is  not  generally  highly 
regarded  for  hay  because  of  its  rank  growth  of  large, 
coarse  stems,  which  do  not  make  so  fine  a  quality  of  hay 
as  red  clover.     However,  if  grown  on  rather  poor  soils, 
the  quality  of  the  hay  may  be  as  good  as  that  of  red  clover, 
and  being  a  more  vigorous  plant,  the  yield  from  it  is 
greater.     The  cutting,  however,  should  not  be  delayed 
after  the  plant  is  in  full  bloom  if  a  good  quality  of  hay  is 
to  be  expected.     Usually  it  produces  little  or  no  after 
growth,  and  is  of  little  value  for  fall  pasture.     Mammoth 
clover  is  probably  more  often  grown  for  green  manure 


THE  CLOVERS 


265 


than  for  hay  or  pasture.  As  a  soil  improver,  it  has  no 
equal  in  the  corn  belt  states,  since  it  produces  a  great  vol- 
ume of  stems  and  leaves,  which,  when  plowed  under,  add 
large  amounts  of  nitrogen  and  humus  to  the  soil.  Unlike 
red  clover,  mammoth  clover  seeds  abundantly  the  first 
crop,  and  often  a  seed  crop  may  be  removed  before  plowing 
it  under. 

266.    Cultural  methods.  —  Mammoth  clover  has  adap- 
tations to  soil  and  climate  similar  to  those  of  red  clover. 


FIG.  93.  —  Rolling  down  clover  to  be  plowed  under  for  green  manure. 

It  is,  perhaps,  somewhat  better  adapted  to  the  poorer 
types  of  soil  than  red  clover,  which  increases  its  impor- 
tance as  a  green  manure  crop,  since  it  will  grow  well  on 
those  soils  that  most  greatly  need  assistance.  The  method 
and  rate  of  seeding  is  similar  to  that  described  for  red 
clover.  When  grown  for  both  seed  and  green  manure,  it 
is  desirable  to  harvest  the  seed  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
remove  as  little  of  the  plant  as  possible.  This  may  be 


266  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

done  by  rolling  down  the  plants  with  a  heavy  roller  a  few 
days  before  harvesting  the  seed.  At  this  time  the  plants 
are  nearly  mature,  and  the  main  stems  will  not  straighten 
up  again,  but  in  a  few  days  the  ends  of  the  branches  bear- 
ing the  heads  will  turn  upward,  and  they  may  then  be  cut 
off  without  removing  much  of  the  plants.  The  field  may 
then  be  plowed  and  the  clover  turned  under  to  fertilize 
the  soil.  Mammoth  clover  seeds  abundantly,  probably 
because  it  is  less  likely  to  insect  ravages  than  red  clover, 
and  also  because  the  bumblebees  are  more  plentiful  when 
it  is  in  bloom. 

WHITE     CLOVER 

White  clover,  Trifolium  repens,  is  sometimes  called 
Dutch  clover  or  little  Dutch  clover,  because  of  its  promi- 
nence in  the  pastures  of  Holland. 

267.  Description.  —  White  clover  is  a  low  growing 
plant,  perennial  in  habit  and  under  favorable  conditions 
living  for  many  years,  differing  in  these  respects  from  both 
red  clover  and  alsike.  It  has  a  shallow  root  system,  usu- 
ally almost  all  of  the  roots  being  found  in  the  first  8  or  9 
inches  of  soil.  The  stems  do  not  grow  erect,  but  lie  along 
the  ground,  forming  runners  which  root  freely  at  each 
node.  It  therefore  spreads  rapidly  and  makes  a  firm 
turf,  which  makes  it  well  adapted  to  pastures  and  lawns. 
The  leaves  and  flowering  heads  grow  on  long,  upright 
stalks  which  arise  from  the  prostrate  stems.  The  length 
of  the  leaf  and  flower  stalk  depends  upon  the  conditions 
of  growth.  If  grown  alone,  they  do  not  grow  as  tall  as 
if  grown  with  grasses  or  clovers.  This  is  due  to  the  ten- 
dency of  the  plant  to  place  its  flowers  and  leaves  high 
enough  so  that  they  will  not  be  completely  shaded  by  other 
plants.  The  length  of  the  leaf  and  flower  stalks  varies 
from  a  few  inches  to  a  foot  or  more.  The  flowering  head 


THE  CLOVERS 


26T 


is  smaller  than  that  of  either  red  clover  or  alsike,  and  the 
corolla  of  the  flowers  is  white  in  color  during  early  growth, 
and  turning  to  light  brown  as  the  plant  matures.  When 
favored  with  cool,  moist  weather  the  plant  blooms  through- 
out the  growing  season.  Seed  is  produced  abundantly 
and  the  plants,  when  grown  for  seed,  yield  5  to  15  bushels 
per  acre.  The  seeds  are  heart-shaped,  similar  to  but 
smaller  than  those  of  alsike,  and  are  yellow  in  color.  The 
proportion  of  hard  seeds  is  relatively  high  and  sometimes 


FIG.  94.  —  A  trailing  stem  of  white  clover. 

they  may  lie  in  the  ground  for  several  years  before  ger- 
minating. 

268.  Adaptation  and  uses.  —  White  clover  is  more 
universally  distributed  than  any  of  the  common  clovers, 
and  may  be  found  throughout  the  temperate  regions  of 
the  world.  It  is  probably  a  native  of  Europe  or  Asia 
and  has  been  introduced  into  the  other  countries,  perhaps 
by  the  seeds  being  carried  in  with  those  of  other  legumes 
or  grasses.  The  seeds  are  light  and  easily  carried  and  are 
not  usually  digested  when  eaten  by  animals,  which  fact 
probably  assists  in  the  distribution.  The  creeping  nature 


268  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

of  its  stems  and  its  perennial  character  makes  possible 
its  rapid  increase  when  once  seeded,  even  though  only  a 
few  seeds  may  be  dropped  at  first.  White  clover  is  less 
sensitive  to  climate  than  red  or  alsike  clover,  and  has  a 
much  wider  distribution.  It  grows  on  almost  all  soils, 
but  thrives  best  on  moist,  fertile,  well-drained  soils.  It 
does  not  grow  well  on  soils  deficient  in  lime  or  extremely 
lacking  in  fertility.  When  white  clover  grows  abundantly 
in  fields  or  along  the  roadside,  this  fact  is  usually  taken  as 
an  indication  of  a  productive  soil.  White  clover  does 
not  grow  tall  enough  to  be  of  value  as  hay.  It  finds  its 
greatest  usefulness  in  mixtures  for  permanent  pastures 
and  parks  and  lawns.  It  is  well  adapted  for  growing  with 
blue  grass,  and  together  they  make  the  finest  of  pasture 
and  the  most  beautiful  lawns  in  parks  and  yards.  In  the 
South  it  grows  well  with  Bermuda  grass,  both  plants  re- 
maining green  throughout  the  winter  in  the  extreme  South. 
269.  White  clover  is  found  in  almost  all  of  the  perma- 
nent pastures  of  England  and  Europe,  where  it  is  highly 
regarded.  It  is  seldom  seeded  alone,  except  when  grown 
for  seed,  but  usually  is  seeded  with  other  legumes  and 
grasses.  In  eastern  Wisconsin  it  is  seeded  with  barley  in 
the  rotation  and  it  is  in  this  section  that  most  of  the  seed 
is  produced.  Because  of  the  small  size  of  the  seeds,  and 
the  tendency  of  the  plant  to  spread  by  runners,  the  rate 
of  seeding  is  comparatively  light.  When  seeded  in  mix- 
tures for  pastures,  2  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  sufficient 
for  a  good  stand.  For  the  seeding  of  lawns,  the  rate 
should  be  increased  to  4  to  6  pounds  per  acre.  No  per- 
manent pasture  in  the  blue  grass  sections  is  complete  with- 
out the  presence  of  white  clover,  and  in  almost  all  seed 
mixtures  for  permanent  pastures,  white  clover  may  well 
be  included. 


THE  CLOVERS 


269 


ALSIKE     CLOVER 

Alsike  clover,  Trifolium  hybridum,  is  a  native  of  Europe 
and  gets  its  name  from  the  village  of  Syke  or  Alsike  in 
Sweden.  It  is  also  sometimes  called  Swedish  clover. 
Alsike  clover  was  formerly  thought  to  be  a  hybrid  from 
the  crossing  of  white 
and  red  clovers,  but 
it  is  now  known  to  be 
a  distinct  species.  It 
was  introduced  into 
the  United  States 
many  years  ago,  and 
it  is  now  grown 
throughout  the 
Northern  States  of 
this  country  except 
in  the  arid  regions  of 
the  West,  and  in 
southern  Canada. 

270.  Description. 
—  Alsike  clover  is 
more  perennial  in  its 
character  than  red 
clover,  sometimes  living  for  5  or  6  years.  It  resembles 
red  clover  in  its  manner  of  growth  and  white  clover 
in  the  appearance  of  its  leaves  and  blossom.  Its  root 
system  is  more  fibrous  than  that  of  red  clover,  and  it 
does  not  heave  as  badly.  The  roots  are  not  as  large 
and  usually  do  not  extend  so  deeply  into  the  ground 
as  those  of  red  clover.  The  branches  are  more  slender 
and,  when  grown  on  fertile  soils,  are  inclined  to  be 
decumbent  at  the  base.  The  nodes,  coming  in  contact 


FIG.   95.  —  Alsike   clover.       Note   manner 
of  branching. 


270 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


with  the  ground,  take  root,  giving  to  it  somewhat  of  a 
creeping  habit.  The  leaves  are  smaller  than  those  of  red 
clover  and  neither  the  leaves  or  branches  are  covered  with 
the  hairy  down  as  is  the  case  with  the  latter.  The 
flowering  heads  are  smaller  than  those  of  red  clover,  and 
the  flowers  are  pink  or  white  in  color,  closely  resembling 
those  of  white  clover.  The  seeds  are  more  or  less  heart- 


FIG.  96.  —  A  side-delivery  rake. 

shaped,  are  slightly  larger  than  those  of  white  and  some- 
what smaller  than  those  of  red  clover.  They  vary  in 
color  from  yellow  to  green,  the  most  common  color  being 
yellowish-green.  The  seed  weighs  about  90  pounds  to 
the  measured  bushel,  but  on  the  market  60  pounds  is 
regarded  as  a  bushel. 

271.  Adaptations.  —  Alsike  clover  is  more  hardy  than 
red  clover  and  may  be  grown  in  sections  too  cold  for  red 
clover  to  endure  the  winter,  but  it  does  not  grow  as  far 


THE  CLOVERS  271 

south  as  the  latter.  It  is  adapted  to  much  the  same  types 
of  soil  as  red  clover,  although  it  is  able  to  grow  on  soils 
too  wet  for  the  latter  to  thrive.  Another  way  in  which  it 
differs  from  red  clover  is  its  ability  to  withstand  a  slightly 
acid  condition  of  the  soil.  It  is  therefore  better  adapted 
than  red  clover  to  sections  of  the  country  having  wet  or 
acid  soils.  In  many  parts  of  the  clover-growing  region, 
the  soils  have  become  so  deficient  in  lime  that  red  clover 


FIG.  97.  —  Curing  clover  hay  in  the  cock. 

is  no  longer  a  sure  crop,  and  it  is  being  replaced  in  the 
rotation  to  some  extent  by  alsike.  While  alsike  is  grown 
throughout  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  it  is 
of  the  most  importance  in  the  tier  of  states  just  south  of 
the  Canadian  line. 

272.  Uses  and  cultural  methods.  —  Alsike  is  not  usually 
grown  alone,  except  when  grown  for  seed,  but  is  most 
commonly  seeded  in  combination  with  other  clovers  or 
grasses  for  hay  or  pasture.  Because  of  its  finer  stems, 
alsike  hay  is  of  finer  quality  and  is  more  easily  cured  than 
red  clover  hay,  and  because  of  the  absence  of  the  hairy 


272  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

down  on  the  stems  and  leaves,  is  less  dusty  when  cured. 
It  does  not  yield  as  much  per  acre  as  does  the  red  clover. 
Usually  it  is  grown  in  small  amounts  with  red  clover,  but 
replaces  it  when  soils  are  acid  or  wet.  It  ripens  well  with 
timothy  and  makes  with  it  a  good  quality  of  hay.  Alsike 
makes  but  little  second  growth  and  furnishes  but  little 
pasture  after  the  hay  crop  is  cut  unless  favored  with 
good  growing  weather.  It  is  excellent  for  mixtures  for  tem- 
porary pastures,  but  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  permanent 
pastures  as  is  white  clover.  The  cultural  methods  are 
the  same  as  those  described  for  red  clover,  except  in 
regard  to  the  rate  of  seeding.  When  seeded  alone,  10 
pounds  per  acre  is  regarded  as  a  full  seeding,  and  in  mix- 
tures from  2  to  6  pounds  are  used. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER 

Crimson  clover,  Trifolium  incarnatum,  is  also  known  as 
Italian  clover,  German  clover,  French  clover,  scarlet 
clover,  and  carnation  clover.  It  has  been  cultivated  from 
early  times  in  southern  France  and  northern  Spain,  and 
within  the  past  century  has  become  generally  distributed 
in  other  parts  of  Europe.  It  was  introduced  into  south- 
eastern Pennsylvania  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  has  come  into  general  cultivation  only  within 
the  past  two  or  three  decades. 

273.  Description.  —  Unlike  the  other  commonly  cul- 
tivated clovers,  crimson  clover  is  an  annual,  maturing 
seed  within  the  year  from  the  date  of  seeding.  It  has  a 
strongly  branched  tap  root  which  penetrates  the  ground 
under  favorable  conditions  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four 
feet.  The  tap  root  gives  off  many  secondary  branches, 
which  also  extend  some  distance  into  the  soil.  The 
tubercles  are  formed  on  the  roots  during  the  early  stages 


THE  CLOVERS 


273 


of  growth,  and  the  plant  is  noted  for  the  large  amount  of 
nitrogen  gathered  during  its  short  life.  The  main  stem, 
like  that  of  red  clover,  does  not  grow  very  tall,  but  gives 
off  numerous  branches  or  stools,  sometimes  as  many  as 
100  being  given  off  from  a  single  plant.  The  stems  or 
stools  give  off  but  few  branches  and  vary  from  1  to  3  feet  • 
in  height,  giving  the  plant  a  bushy  appearance.  The  leaves 
and  stems  are  covered  with  an  abundance  of  fine  hairs. 
The  flowering  head  is  car- 
ried at  the  apex  of  the 
branches,  and,  unlike  those 
of  red  clover,  they  are 
some  little  distance  above 
the  topmost  leaf.  The 
flowering  head  is  elongated 
or  cone  shaped,  and  from 
1  to  2  inches  long.  The 
flowers  are  usually  scarlet 
or  crimson  in  color,  which 
gives  to  the  plant  its  most 
common  name.  Certain 
varieties,  although  they 
are  not  commonly  grown,  have  white  or  yellow  flowers. 
The  flowers  at  the  base  of  the  head  open  first  and  those 
at  the  apex  are  the  last  to  bloom.  The  seeds  are  larger 
than  those  of  the  other  clovers  described  in  this  chapter, 
and  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  them  by  their 
globular  shape  and  yellow  or  straw  color. 

274.  Adaptation  and  distribution.  —  Crimson  clover 
is  a  tender  plant  and  does  not  thrive  in  latitudes  having 
cold  winters.  It  is  easily  killed  by  hard  freezing,  and  for 
this  reason  cannot  be  generally  grown  excepting  in  places 
of  mild  winter.  In  the  United  States,  it  is  grown  exten- 


FIG.  98.  —  A  crimson  clover  plant. 


274  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

sively  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  States  as  far  noith  as  New 
Jersey.  In  the  northern  corn  belt  states,  it  seldom  with- 
stands the  winters,  and  is  of  little  importance.  It  grows 
well  on  almost  all  types  of  soils,  but  thrives  best  on  the 
loams.  Crimson  clover  will  grow  on  soils  of  a  very  sandy 
nature,  but  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  add  mineral 
fertilizers  to  this  type  of  soil  to  secure  a  good  crop.  Crim- 
son clover,  like  red  clover,  does  not  grow  well  on  wet  soils  ; 
but  it  is  less  sensitive  to  a  deficiency  of  lime,  growing  well 
on  soils  that  turn  litmus  paper  red. 

275.  Uses  of  crimson  clover.  —  Crimson  clover  is 
used  to  some  extent  for  hay  in  the  states  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  it  is  said  to  make  an  excellent  quality  of  hay 
when  properly  cut  and  cured.  According  to  chemical 
analysis,  it  has  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  red  clover. 
The  hay,  however,  is  of  coarser  quality  and  is  not  so  pala- 
table as  that  of  red  clover,  although  many  farmers  prefer 
it  to  the  latter.  Its  palatability  and  feeding  value  is  in- 
fluenced to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  time  of  cutting.  If 
allowed  to  stand  too  long,  the  stems  become  woody  and  the 
calyx  surrounding  the  seed  pod  becomes  stiff  and  sharp, 
which  makes  it  objectionable  for  feeding.  Sometimes  hair 
balls  are  formed  from  the  hair  of  stems  and  leaves,  and 
cause  digestive  troubles  in  animals  to  which  it  is  fed.  If 
cut  for  hay  about  the  time  it  is  in  full  bloom,  and  properly 
cured,  the  above  objections  are  largely  overcome.  The 
curing  is  rather  difficult  on  account  of  the  high  water  con- 
tent, but  may  be  well  accomplished  by  piling  in  rather  small 
cocks  and  allowing  to  remain  for  a  few  days.  When  ready 
for  storing,  the  cocks  should  be  ,opened  up  and  thoroughly 
dried  out.  Crimson  clover  furnishes  good  pasture  during 
the  late  summer  and  fall,  and  it  may  be  pastured  again 
in  the  spring.  It  is  also  valuable  for  soiling,  being  avail- 


THE  CLOVERS  275 

able  for  feeding  just  after  the  rye  is  fed  and  before  the 
first  cuttings  of  alfalfa.  The  principal  use  of  crimson 
clover  is  to  build  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  by  the  addition 
of  nitrogen  and  the  increase  of  the  supply  of  humus  by 
plowing  it  under  for  green  manure.  Crimson  clover 
takes  up,  on  an  average,  about  140  pounds  of  nitrogen 
per  acre  during  the  year,  about  one-third  of  which  remains 
in  the  roots.  Being  a  large,  quick  growing  plant,  it  adds 
much  organic  matter  to  the  soil  when  plowed  under.  It 
is  also  an  excellent  cover  crop  for  orchards  and  is  used 
extensively  for  this  purpose. 

276.  Cultural  methods.  —  Crimson  clover  may  be 
grown  as  a  crop  in  a  regular  rotation  or  it  may  be  used  as 
a  catch  crop.  As  a  catch  crop  it  is  most  often  seeded  in 
summer  with  buckwheat  or  in  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last 
cultivation.  Crimson  clover  grows  rapidly,  and  if  seeded 
in  midsummer,  will  make  most  of  its  growth  before  winter. 
In  this  ease,  if  it  is  used  as  a  green  manure  crop,  it  may  be 
plowed  under  early  in  the  spring  with  good  results,  or  it 
may  be  allowed  to  stand  until  it  starts  to  bloom  before 
plowing  it  under  for  a  crop  like  corn  or  potatoes.  Some 
farmers  harvest  the  crop  of  hay  and  plow  under  only  the 
clover  stubble  for  corn  or  late  potatoes.  When  used  as 
a  catch  crop,  it  is  usually  seeded  in  the  corn  at  the  last 
cultivation  and  plowed  under  the  next  spring.  The  entire 
crop  may  be  plowed  under  or  a  crop  of  hay  may  first  be 
removed,  and  after  plowing,  corn  may  then  be  planted. 
Thus  corn  may  be  grown  for  two  successive  years  with  a 
legume  sod  to  be  plowed  under  for  the  second  crop,  and 
sometimes  for  both  crops.  This  is  possible  in  a  four-year 
rotation  of  corn,  corn,  wheat,  and  red  clover,  using  crimson 
clover  as  a  catch  crop  in  the  first  corn  crop.  Crimson 
clover  may  be  seeded  in  the  spring,  but  usually  it  is  seeded 


276  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

in  summer  or  early  fall.  The  rate  of  seeding  varies  from 
12  to  20  pounds  per  acre,  15  pounds  being  considered  an 
average  seeding. 

FUNGOUS   DISEASES   AND   INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   CLOVERS 

277.  Common  enemies.  —  The  clovers  are  not  usually  seri- 
ously affected  by  fungous  diseases,  although  leaf  spot  and  leaf 
rust  and  root  and  stem  rot  sometimes  cause  serious  injury.     The 
entomologists  list  almost  a  hundred  insects  that  do  more  or  less 
injury  to  the  clovers.     Many  of  them,  however,  are  not  widely 
distributed,   and   the  injury   they   do  is  comparatively   small. 
The  three  most  common  and  injurious  enemies  are  the  clover 
root-borer,  the  leaf  weevil,  and  the  seed  midge. 

278.  Clover  root-borer.  —  The  clover  root-borer  is  a  small, 
black  beetle  that  lays  its  eggs  in  May  or  June  in  cavities  in  the 
crown  of  the  plant  or  down  the  side  of  the  roots.     The  eggs 
hatch  and  a  small  grub-like  larva  burrows  into  the  roots,  eating 
out  great  cavities  and  greatly  weakening  the  plant.     The  larva 
changes  to  the  pupa  stage,  from  which  the  adult  beetle  emerges, 
but  it  remains  in  the  root  of  the  clover  until  spring,  when  it 
comes  out  to  lay  its  eggs.     The  most  effective  means  of  control- 
ling this  insect  is  to  plow  the  field  as  soon  as  the  ha,y  has  been 
removed,  thus  depriving  the  larvae  of  their  food,  causing  them 
to  starve.     The  root-borer  attacks  chiefly  red  clover  and  mam- 
moth clover,  but  it  also  injures  alsike  clover  and  alfalfa. 

279.  The  clover-leaf  weevil.  —  The  presence  of  this  insect 
in  a  clover  field  may  be  detected  by  the  large,  round  notches 
which  are  eaten  in  the  edges  of  the  leaves ;  the  larvae  and  adults 
may  then  be  found  hiding  at  the  base  of  the  plant  under  leaves  or 
rubbish.     Both  the  larvae  and  adults  are  shy  creatures,  working 
almost  entirely  at  night,  and  if  by  chance  they  .are  found  at 
work  during  the  day,  they  immediately  cease  their  activities  and 
drop  from  the  plant  to  the  ground  as  if  dead.     The  adults  are 
stout,  brown  colored  beetles  with  a  strong  snout.     They  lay 
their  eggs  in  early  fall  on  the  plant  or  in  the  debris  near  its  base. 
The  larvae,  which  at  first  are  white,  change  later  to  a  dark  green 
color,  and  become  partly  grown  before  winter.     They  remain 
dormant  during  the  winter,  and  when  spring  comes,  they  again 


THE  CLOVERS  277 

feed  on  the  leaves  and  reach  maturity  in  May  or  June.  The 
adult  beetles  also  feed  upon  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  clover. 
Fortunately,  these  destructive  insects  are  largely  held  in  check 
by  a  fungus  which  grows  upon  their  bodies,  causing  death. 
If  not  held  in  check  by  the  fungus,  they  may  be  controlled  to 
some  extent  by  plowing  the  field  soon  after  the  removal  of  the 
hay  crop.  All  kinds  of  clovers  are  more  or  less  affected  by  the 
leaf  weevil,  but  it  prefers  the  red  and  white  clovers  to  the  alsike. 
280.  The  clover-seed  midge.  —  Low  yields  of  clover  seed 
are  quite  frequently  due  to  the  clover-seed  midge.  The  adult 
is  a  little  fly,  smaller  than  a  mosquito,  which  lays  its  eggs  beneath 
the  glumes  of  the  clover  head.  The  larvae  when  they  hatch 
burrow  into  the  flower  and  eat  the  developing  seed.  There 
are  usually  two  broods  each  year,  the  larvae  from  the  first  brood 
becoming  full  grown  about  the  time  red  clover  is  ready  to  cut 
for  hay.  The  second  brood  feeds  on  the  second  growth,  the  one 
usually  cut  for  seed,  and  may  be  so  numerous  as  to  destroy  the 
seed  crop.  The  best  means  of  controlling  the  insects  is  to  remove 
the  hay  crop  rather  early,  allowing  the  second  crop  to  appear 
before  the  second  brood  of  midges  come  on.  By  this  means  large 
yields  of  seed  may  be  had,  whereas  if  the  hay  is  cut  at  the  usual 
time,  the  insects  may  greatly  reduce  the  seed  crop.  Red  and 
mammoth  clovers  are  most  greatly  affected  by  the  midge. 


CHAPTER  XV 


ALFALFA 

WHILE  alfalfa  is  comparatively  a  new  crop  to  the  Ameri- 
can farmer,  it  has  been  grown  for  centuries  by  farmers  in 
other  lands.  Indeed,  so  far  as  we  know,  it  is  the  oldest 
of  cultivated  leguminous  forage  crops,  its  culture  in  the  east- 
ern Mediterranean  regions 
having  been  established  long 
before  the  Christian  era. 
Probably  it  was  first  culti- 
vated in  Persia,  from  which 
country  it  was  introduced 
into  Greece  during  the  war 
between  these  two  nations 
over  400  years  B.C.  From 
Greece  it  was  carried  to  the 
Romans,  whose  armies,  as 
they  went  forth  to  battle, 
carried  it  with  them  and 
were  responsible  for  its  in- 

FIG.  99.  —  An  alfalfa  plant.  ^    . 

troduction  into  many  Jiiurc- 

pean  countries.  When  it  first  came  to  the  United 
States  we  do  not  know,  but  probably  in  colonial  days 
or  soon  thereafter,  since  we  know  that  Thomas  Jefferson 
grew  it  in  Virginia.  Its  culture  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  United  States,  however,  did  not  attract  much  atten- 
tion, and  it  was  grown  there  but  little.  In  1851  it  was 

278 


ALFALFA  279 

introduced  from  South  America  into  California,  where  it 
soon  met  with  great  favor.  From  California  it  rapidly 
spread  eastward  until  a  few  years  ago,  it  again  reached  the 
Atlantic  Coast  States,  coming  this  time  from  the  West. 

281.  Description.  —  Alfalfa,  Medicago  saliva,  is  a  peren- 
nial plant  with  an  upright  manner  of  growth  and  a  deep 
root  system.  One  of  the  distinctive  features  of  alfalfa 
is  the  extent  of  its  root  system,  which  is  characterized  by 
a  strong,  deep-growing 
tap  root,  with  compara- 
tively few  feeding  roots 
near  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Ordinarily 
the  tap  root  does  not 
branch,  but  sometimes 
two  or  three  or  more 
strong  branches,  often 
as  large  as  the  tap 
root  itself,  are  given  off  from  it  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  they  grow  downward  almost, 
if  not  quite,  as  deep  as  does  the  tap  root.  Wonderful 
tales  have  been  told  about  the  depth  to  which  alfalfa 
roots  will  extend  into  the  ground.  One  account  relates 
the  finding  of  them  while  digging  a  tunnel  over  one  hun- 
dred feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  many  in- 
cidents are  known  where  they  have  penetrated  the  ground 
to  a  depth  of  more  than  twenty  feet.  Alfalfa  is  a  native 
of  dry  lands,  and  many  years  ago  developed  a  deep-rooted 
character  to  secure  a  supply  of  water  from  the  moisture 
in  the  deep  subsoil.  The  roots  of  alfalfa  will  not  grow 
more  than  a  few  inches  below  the  water  table,  and  the 
depth  to  which  the  roots  may  penetrate  the  soil,  there- 
fore, may  be  determined  by  the  position  of  the  water  table. 


280  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

The  roots  are  able  to  penetrate  rather  impervious  sub- 
soils, but  usually  grow  deeper  in  those  of  a  loose,  open 
character.  The  usual  depth  of  the  root  system  is  from 
3  to  12  feet. 

282.  The  stems  of  the  alfalfa 
plant,  which  bear  short,  leafy 
branches,  arise  from  the  crown  or 
woody  top  of  the  tap  root.  The 
stems  may  be  given  off  a  little 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
thus  forming  a  branched  crown. 
The  number  of  stems  per  plant 
varies  from  3  to  15,  and  in  rare 
cases  individual  plants  may  pro- 
duce over  100  stems.  The  plants 
vary  in  height,  the  average  height 
probably  being  from  1J  to  3  feet. 

The  leaves  are  smaller  and  rather 
more  narrow  and  more  pointed 
than  those  of  red  clover.  They 
differ  from  those  of  the  clovers,  too, 
in  that  the  three  leaflets,  which  are 
arranged  together  as  in  the  clovers, 
do  not  all  grow  out  from  the  end  of 

FIG.  lOl.-Alfalfa  roots.      ^  ^  branch  ^  ^^  but  the 

two  lateral  leaves  of  the  group  grow  out  oppositely  from  a 
point  some  little  distance  down  the  stem. 

The  flowers  are  purple,  and  are  carried  in  elongated 
clusters  or  racemes,  which  grow  out  from  various  points 
on  the  stems  and  branches.  The  flowers  are  similar  in 
shape  to  those  of  red  clover,  and  both  honey  bees  and 
bumblebees  are  agents  in  their  pollination.  The  seeds 
afe  produced  in  spirally  twisted  pods,  which  may  have 


ALFALFA  281 

from  one  to  three  coils,  containing  from  one  to  eight  seeds. 
The  seeds  are  nominally  kidney-shaped,  although  the 
coil  may  compress  them  into  other  shapes.  They  are 
uniform  in  color,  usually  light  green,  although  unfavorable 
weather  at  harvest  time  may  cause  them  to  take  on  a 
darker  green  color.  They  are  slightly  larger  than  those 
of  red  clover,  and  this  difference,  together  with  their 
characteristic  shape  and  uniform  color,  serves  as  a  means 
of  distinguishing  one  from  the  other. 

283.  Varieties.  —  Since  alfalfa  has  become  an  impor- 
tant crop  in  this  country,  progressive  growers  and  experi- 
ment stations  have  attempted  to  produce  varieties  or 
strains  that  will  be  better  adapted  and  will  yield  larger 
returns  than  the  ordinary  alfalfa  under  certain  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  climate.  Thus,  a  variety  with  un- 
usual drought-resisting  qualities  would  be  well  adapted 
to  certain  regions  of  the  West,  and  would  probably  give 
larger  yields  than  ordinary  alfalfa  under  the  same  con- 
ditions. Some  progress  has  been  made  also  in  selecting 
for  a  higher  percentage  of  leaves,  to  increase  the  value  of 
the  hay.  For  the  most  part,  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  in  the  way  of  securing  better  adapted  varieties 
has  been  accomplished  by  importing  seeds  or  plants  from 
other  countries  having  climate  and  soils  similar  to  the 
section  where  better  adapted  varieties  are  desired.  Usu- 
ally the  variety  is  given  the  name  of  the  country  from 
which  it  was  imported.  Thus  we  find  such  varieties  as 
Turkestan,  Peruvian,  and  Arabian.  Another  variety, 
called  Grimm  alfalfa,  grown  in  the  Northwest,  is 
named  for  the  man  who  introduced  it,  and  it  is  said 
to  be  more  hardy  than  common  alfalfa.  Turkestan  is 
also  a  hardy  and  drought-resisting  variety,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  certain  sections  of  the  semi-arid  West,  aL- 


282  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

though  it  is  no  better  in  humid  climates  than  ordinary 
alfalfa. 

284.  Distribution.  —  Alfalfa    is    now    grown    to    some 
extent  in  all  countries  having  temperate  climate.     It  is 
grown  over  wide  areas  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  and 
South   America.     It   is  an  important  crop  in  many  of 
the  South  American  countries,  especially  in  Argentina, 
where  it  is  said  to  occupy  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  cul- 
tivated land.     In  the  United  States  alfalfa  has  come  into 
great  favor,  and  its  acreage  has  increased  at  a  remarkable 
rate  within  the  past  thirty  years.     It  is  now  grown  in 
almost  every  state,  but  by  far  the  greater  acreage  is  to  be 
found  in  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi.     According 
to  the  1910  census,  4,707,000  acres  are  devoted  to  growing 
alfalfa  in  the  United  States,  4,500,000  of  which  are  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  the  New  England  States  devoting  less 
than  1300  acres  to  the  crop.     The  comparatively  small 
acreage  devoted  to  alfalfa  in  the  states  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi is  due,  in  great  measure,  to  its  recent  introduction, 
to  a  general  lack  of  appreciation  of  its  value,  and  to  a 
lack  of  knowledge  of  its  cultural  requirements.     While 
almost  all  of  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi  have  large 
acreages  devoted  to  alfalfa,  Kansas,  Colorado,  California, 
and  Idaho  have  the  largest  acreages. 

285.  Adaptation    to     climate.  —  Alfalfa    has    a    wide 
adaptation  to  climate,  as  is  made  evident  by  the  study 
of  its   distribution.     It  is,   however,  better   adapted  to 
warm  than  to  cool  climates,  but  the  area  of  its  successful 
growth  has  gradually  been  extended  and  now  reaches  well 
up  into  Canada.     Alfalfa,  on  account  of  its  deep-rooting 
habit,  is  adapted  to  semi-arid  sections,  and  when  once 
well  established,  will  withstand  severe  drought.     In  sec- 
tions with  an  annual  average  of  less  than  20  inches  of 


ALFALFA  283 

rainfall,  it  is  necessary  to  irrigate  if  good  yields  are  to  be 
expected. 

286.  Adaptation  to  soils.  —  Alfalfa  will  grow  in  many 
different  kinds  of  soil,  but  in  order  to  produce  a  successful 
stand,  it  must,  above  all,  be  well-drained  soil.     Alfalfa 
seems  to  be  sensitive  to  an  excessive  amount  of  moisture  in 
the  soil  during  the  growing  season.     Soils  that  are  water- 
logged or  that  have  water  standing  over  them  during  part 
of   the   growing  season  are  not   suitable  for   this   crop 
until  this  condition  is  remedied  by  drainage ;  but  soils 
that  have  natural   drainage,  or  that  have  porous  sub- 
soils,    giving     natural    sub-surface    draining,    are    well 
adapted    to    the    crop.     Soils    that    have    a    watertable 
or  a  stratum  of  rock  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  are 
not  well  adapted  because  the  roots  will  thus  be  prevented 
from  penetrating  very  deeply  into  the  subsoil.     Alfalfa 
does  not  grow  well  in  acid  soils,  and  when  this  condition 
exists,  lime  must  be  applied  before  a  successful  stand  can 
be  expected.     If  neutral  or  blue  litmus  paper  turns  red 
when  placed  in  a  sample  of  damp  soil,  the  latter  is  acid, 
and  lime  should  be  applied.     The  amount  to  apply  per 
acre  will  depend  upon  the  degree  of  acidity.     An  applica- 
tion of  one  ton  of  finely  ground  limestone  or  one-half 
ton  of  burned  lime  per  acre  will  meet  the  requirement  of 
almost  any  acid  soil.     There  must  be  a  sufficient  amount  of 
lime  in  the  surface  soil.     Some  soils  that  have  limestone 
in  the  subsoil  will  not  grow  the  crop  successfully  until 
the  surface  soil  is  given  a  liberal  application  of  lime. 

287.  The  soil  must  be  fertile  and  well  supplied  with 
organic  matter.     While  the  growing  of  alfalfa  adds  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil,  the  plant  is  not  able  to  use  the  nitrogen 
from  the  air  until  it  has  made  a  fair  amount  of  growth ; 
consequently  it  must  depend  upon  the  nitrogen  in  the 


284  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

soil  to  tide  it  over  until  it  is  able  to  draw  upon  the  supply 
in  the  air.  Soils  for  alfalfa  should  have  enough  available 
plant  food  to  permit  the  plants  to  reach  the  stage  where 
they  can  make  use  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  air.  Poor  soils 
are  usually  in  a  poor  physical  condition,  and  do  not  pro- 
vide a  suitable  place  for  the  growth  of  bacteria.  The 
physical  condition  of  such  soils  may  be  greatly  improved 
by  applying  barnyard  manure  and  plowing  under  green 
manure  crops  a  few  years  previous  to  the  seeding  of  alfalfa. 
Organic  matter  not  only  improves  the  physical  condition 
of  the  soil,  but  it  also  prevents  heaving  and  winter-killing. 
The  bacteria  that  produce  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of 
the  alfalfa  plant  should  be  present  in  the  soil,  for  it  is  due 
to  these  bacteria  that  nitrogen  is  gathered  from  the  air. 
When  they  are  not  present,  if  the  plant  makes  a  success- 
ful growth,  it  must  secure  its  nitrogen  from  the  soil. 
In  order  to  grow  alfalfa  without  the  aid  of  these  bacteria, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a  very  fertile  soil  and  one  that  is 
well  supplied  with  nitrogen.  However,  it  is  not  usually 
desirable  to  do  this.  Sometimes  the  bacteria  that  grow 
upon  the  roots  of  alfalfa  are  not  present  in  the  soil  and  it 
then  becomes  necessary  to  supply  them  artificially.  As 
a  rule  it  is  best  to  inoculate  a  new  field  unless  one  is  certain 
that  the  bacteria  are  present. 

The  methods  employed  in  inoculating  the  soil  for  alfalfa 
are  the  same  as  have^been  discussed  in  Chapter  XIII. 
The  bacteria  that  grow  upon  the  roots  of  sweet  clover  and 
bur  clover  will  also  grow  upon  the  roots  of  alfalfa.  Soils 
that  have  successfully  grown  these  crops  may  be  used  for 
inoculating  alfalfa  fields. 

288.  Use  of  Alfalfa.  —  The  reason  why  alfalfa  is  so 
highly  esteemed  is  not  difficult  to  see.  The  farmer,  as  a 
business  man,  considers  both  the  cost  of  production  and 


ALFALFA  285 

the  returns  from  each  crop  he  grows.  If  he  considers 
alfalfa  in  this  way,  he  must  note  the  fact  that  three,  and 
sometimes  four  or  five  cuttings  of  hay  per  year  may  be 
reasonably  expected,  and  that  the  life  of  the  stand  varies 
from  5  to  15  years,  depending  upon  conditions  for  growth. 
It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  annual  expense  of  pre- 
paring the  seed  bed,  of  the  purchase  of  seed  and  seeding 
that  is  necessary  in  the  growing  of  general  farm  crops, 
makes  the  cost  of  production  of  alfalfa  relatively  low. 
Unlike  many  crops  with  a  relatively  low  cost  of  produc- 
tion, alfalfa  is  a  bountiful  yielder  of  forage,  possessing 
a  high  per  cent  of  protein,  which  gives  it  high  rank  in 
feeding  value.  Experiments  conducted  by  some  experi- 
ment stations  show  that  alfalfa  compares  favorably  with 
wheat  bran  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows.  Other  experi- 
ments, while  not  giving  it  an  equal  value  with  wheat  bran, 
have  given  it  a  high  rank  among  the  feeds  of  farm  animals. 
The  growing  of  alfalfa  not  only  makes  possible  the  pro- 
duction of  protein  on  the  farm  for  balancing  the  feeding 
ration,  but  also,  since  it  is  a  leguminous  crop,  supple- 
ments the  work  of  clover  in  maintaining  soil  fertility. 
It  is  especially  valuable  as  a  soil  improver  because  of  its 
extensive  root  growth,  which,  when  it  decays,  makes 
drainage  channels  for  air  and  water  and  opens  up  passages 
for  the  roots  of  succeeding  crops  that  do  not  penetrate 
the  soil  so  readily. 

289.  Almost  all  of  the  alfalfa  produced  in  the  United 
States  is  used  for  hay.  Alfalfa  hay  is  relished  by  all 
kinds  of  live  stock,  including  hogs  and  chickens.  The 
yield  of  hay  per  acre  varies  greatly  with  soils  and  climate. 
The  fact  that  several  cuttings  per  season  may  be  had 
makes  possible  a  relatively  high  yield.  Each  cutting 
on  good  soils,  if  favored  with  sufficient  rainfall,  may 


286  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

yield  from  one  to  two  or  more  tons  per  acre,  giving  a  total 
production  of  from  3  to  8  tons.  Alfalfa  is  used  to  some 
extent  as  pasture,  and  is  especially  valuable  for  hogs. 
Cattle,  when  pastured  upon  it,  are  subject  to  bloating, 
but  if  the  same  precautions  are  taken  as  were  suggested 
for  pasturing  them  on  red  clover,  little  trouble  need  be 
experienced.  Alfalfa  does  not  form  a  compact  sod,  and 
does  not  stand  tramping  nor  close  grazing  well,  and  when 
used  for  this  purpose,  a  sufficient  acreage  should  be  grown 
to  permit  of  changing  the  stock  from  one  field  to  another 
from  time  to  time  to  allow  the  new  growth  to  come  on. 
Alfalfa  is  an  excellent  soiling  crop,  since  new  growth 
comes  on  rapidly  after  cutting  and  a  small  acreage  will 
feed  a  comparatively  large  number  of  animals. 

CULTURAL  METHODS 

290.  Preparing  the  soil.  —  The  manner  of  preparing 
the  seed  bed  for  alfalfa  will  depend  largely  upon  the  pre- 
ceding crop.  There  seems  to  be  no  one  best  way  of 
seeding  alfalfa.  Good  stands  may  be  secured  when 
greatly  varying  methods  of  seeding  are  practiced.  In 
some  sections  of  the  country  seeding  in  the  corn  before 
or  just  after  the  last  cultivation  has  been  very  successful. 
Likewise,  seeding  in  the  wheat  or  oats  in  the  spring  after 
the  manner  of  sowing  clover  has  been  successful  in  some 
places.  In  many  localities  these  methods  have  not 
met  with  success,  and  a  more  careful  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed  is  necessary.  If  this  method  is  followed,  the 
land  should  be  plowed  early  and  cultivated  carefully 
with  a  harrow  or  cultivator  until  the  weeds  are  killed  and 
then  the  seed  will  be  sowed  in  a  seed  bed  free  from  weeds 
and  at  the  same  time  well  supplied  with  moisture.  Some- 
times it  may  be  possible  to  follow  early  potatoes  with 


ALFALFA  287 

alfalfa.  This  practice  accomplishes  almost  the  same 
results  that  a  bare  fallow  does.  By  cultivating  the 
potatoes  throughout  the  growing  season,  almost  all  of 
the  weeds  are  killed,  and  enough  moisture  is  retained  to 
start  the  alfalfa.  This  practice  also  permits  the  removing 
of  a  crop  from  the  field,  avoiding  in  this  way  the  loss  of 
the  use  of  the  land  as  is  the  case  when  bare  fallow  is  prac- 
ticed. If  alfalfa  follows  potatoes,  the  land  need  not  be 
plowed  again,  but  should  be  well  worked  down  and  allowed 
to  settle  for  a  couple  of  weeks  before  seeding.  Alfalfa 
seems  to  require  a  rather  compact  seed  bed,  and  if  the 
soil  is  allowed  to  settle  and  become  compact,  the  chances 
for  a  good  stand  are  greatly  increased. 

291.  Seeding.  —  There  is  much  adulterated  seed  on 
the  market  which,  if  purchased,  not  only  increases  the 
price  of  the  alfalfa,  but  may  introduce  very  troublesome 
weeds  into  the  field.  It  is  well  to  get  samples  of  seed  and 
prices  from  several  different  places,  and  to  test  the  seed 
for  purity  and  vitality.  This  method  will  enable  the 
purchaser  to  get  the  best  seed  at  the  lowest  price.  Being 
a  perennial  plant,  alfalfa  may  be  seeded  at  any  time 
during  the  growing  season.  If  early  spring  seeding  is 
practiced,  a  nurse  crop  can  sometimes  be  used  to  advan- 
tage. Probably  the  best  crop  to  use  for  this  purpose  is 
spring  barley,  seeded  at  the  rate  of  1^  bushels  per  acre. 
Oats  may  be  used  as  a  nurse  crop  if  they  are  removed 
early  for  hay,  since,  if  allowed  to  ripen,  they  may  smother 
out  the  alfalfa.  A  nurse  crop  is  not  generally  recom- 
mended for  any  other  than  early  spring  seeding.  If 
fall  seeding  is  to  be  practiced,  the  seeding  should  be  early 
enough  in  the  fall  to  enable  the  plants  to  make  several 
inches  of  growth  before  winter.  The  growth  from  late 
fall  seeding  is  frequently  injured  during  the  winter. 


288  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

The  rate  of  seeding  will  depend  upon  the  quality  of 
seed  and  upon  the  condition  of  the  seed  bed.  In  an  experi- 
ment on  the  rate  of  seeding  conducted  at  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station,  seed  was  sown  at  various  rates,  ranging 
from  5  to  25  pounds  per  acre.  The  10  and  15  pound  rates 
gave  the  best  results,  there  being  very  little  difference 
between  them.  If  the  seed  is  of  good  vitality  and  the 
seed  bed  is  in  good  condition,  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre 
is  considered  enough. 

292.  Cultivation.  —  The  problem  of  keeping  a  stand, 
to  many  farmers,  especially  to  those  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  has  been  a  bigger  problem  than  that  of  getting 
one.  Weeds  seem  to  be  the  greatest  factor  with  which 
the  grower  has  to  contend  in  keeping  a  stand.  Many 
farmers  say  they  have  solved  the  weed  problem  by  prac- 
ticing a  system  of  cultivation.  Some  farmers  cultivate 
each  spring  with  a  spring  tooth  or  disk  harrow,  just  before 
the  young  shoots  start  to  grow ;  others  not  only  cultivate 
in  the  spring  but  after  each  cutting  throughout  the  season. 
This  practice  kills  the  weeds  and  at  the  same  time  loosens 
up  the  soil,  incorporating  any  vegetable  matter  that  may 
have  accumulated  from  fallen  leaves  or  from  other  sources. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  that  alfalfa  will  not  be  injured 
by  severe  cultivation,  after  it  is  once  well  established. 
In  one  experiment,  a  plot  was  cultivated  five  times  with  a 
spring  tooth  harrow  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  alfalfa 
showed  no  bad  effects  from  the  cultivation,  while  most 
of  the  weeds  in  the  field  were  killed.  Cultivation,  however, 
is  to  be  recommended  only  for  fields  in  which  the  alfalfa 
plants  have  become  well  established,  usually  after  they 
are  two  years  old.  Sometimes  weeds  are  troublesome  in 
fields  during  the  first  year,  in  which  case  the  fields  should 
be  run  over  with  the  mower,  clipping  off  the  plants  and 


ALFALFA 


289 


weeds.  The  mower  should  be  set  to  run  rather  high, 
usually  about  4  inches.  If  the  plants  turn  yellow  and 
cease  to  grow  during  the  first  year,  they  should  be  clipped 
off  with  the  mower  so  that  they  may  start  a  new  growth. 
Frequently,  however,  when  the  plants  turn  yellow,  it  is 
because  the  proper  bacteria  to  furnish  them  with  nitrogen 
are  not  present. 

293.    Making  alfalfa  hay.  —  Alfalfa  should  be  cut  for 
hay  when  the  new  shoots  for  the  next  crop  start  out  from 


FIG.   102.  — Stacking  alfalfa  in  New  Mexico. 

the  crown  of  the  plant.  Usually  this  occurs  about  the 
time  the  plants  begin  to  bloom,  although  the  bloom  may 
sometimes  be  farther  advanced  before  the  new  shoots 
appear.  When  the  shoots  appear,  the  crop  should  be 
cut  promptly,  since,  if  the  cutting  is  delayed  until  after 
this  time,  the  leaves  begin  to  drop  from  the  plant  and  the 
quality  of  the  hay  is  reduced.  Cutting  at  this  time  is 
also  more  favorable  for  the  next  crop  for,  if  cut  before  the 
new  shoots  appear,  the  plants  will  be  greatly  weakened 
and  sometimes  destroyed,  and  if  cutting  be  delayed  until 


290 


FIELD   CBOP  PRODUCTION 


after  this  time,  the  second  crop  is  put  back,  which,  in 
the  course  of  the  year,  may  mean  one  less  cutting.  The 
last  cutting  in  the  fall  should  not  be  made  so*  late  that  the 
plants  will  not  be  able  to  make  a  growth  of  8  or  9  inches, 
to  protect  the  crowns  during  the  winter. 

COMPOSITION  OF  ALFALFA  HAY 


ASH 

FAT 

PROTEIN 

CRUDE 

FIBER 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

Stem       .... 

4.99 

0.81 

6.35 

54.33 

27.79 

Leaves  .... 

14.48 

2.96 

23.33 

13.15 

41.16 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  the  leaves  are  much 
richer  in  fat,  ash,  protein,  and  carbohydrates  than  the 
stems,  and  for  that  reason  form  the  most  valuable  part 
of  the  hay.  The  leaves  of  alfalfa,  when  dry,  like  those  of 
other  leguminous  hay  plants,  are  easily  broken  off.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  if  the  best  quality  of  hay  is  to  be 
secured,  that  the  harvesting  be  done  in  such  a  way  as 
to  retain  as  many  of  the  leaves  as  possible.  This  may 
be  done  by  handling  the  hay  in  a  semi-cured  condition 
as  far  as  possible.  Cutting  may  be  done  either  in  the 
afternoon  or  morning,  as  was  suggested  for  the  making  of 
red  clover  hay,  and  the  hay  allowed  to  cure  for  a  short 
time  before  it  is  raked  up.  The  following  day  it  may  be 
piled  in  small  cocks  and  allowed  to  cure  for  a  few  days 
before  hauling  to  the  barn  or  stack.  Alfalfa  hay  does  not 
turn  water  readily,  and  the  best  quality  is  secured  when 
the  cocks  are  covered  with  canvas  caps  while  curing  to 
protect  them  from  the  rain  and  dew.  In  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States,  almost  all  of  the  hay  is  stored 


ALFALFA 


291 


in  sheds  or  barns,  but  in  the  West,  where  large  acreages 
are  grown,  much  of  it  is  stored  in  large  stacks.  To 
reduce  the  bulk  for  hauling  to  market  or  shipping,  the 
hay  may  be  baled  when  taken  from  the  stack  or  barn. 
Alfalfa  meal,  which  has  recently  appeared  on  the  market, 
is  the  Pnely  ground  hay,  which  may  be  fed  with  less  waste. 
Its  feeding  value,  is,  of  course,  the  same  as  that  of  hay. 


FIG.   103.  — •  Canvas  covers  employed  to  protect  alfalfa  cocks  from  rain. 

294.  Harvesting  the  seed.  —  Alfalfa  does  not  produce 
much  seed  in  humid  climates.  Almost  all  of  the  seed 
grown  in  the  United  States  is  produced  in  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  West  or  on  irrigated  lands.  The  produc- 
tion of  seed  seems  to  be  limited  to  a  considerable  extent 
by  the  amount  of  soil  moisture.  There  must  be  enough 
moisture  to  enable  the  plant  to  mature  its  seed,  but  not 
enough  to  cause  the  new  shoots  to  start  out  from  the 
crown  before  the  seeds  are  ripe.  If  the  new  shoots  start 
out  before  the  seeds  are  ripe,  the  yield  of  seed  is  greatly 
reduced.  Only  in  certain  sections  of  the  West  are  moisture 
conditions  favorable  for  the  production  of  a  good  seed 
crop.  On  irrigated  lands,  where  the  moisture  supply  may 


292  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

be  controlled,  alfalfa  seed  is  an  important  crop.  The 
yield  of  seed  is  also  influenced  by  the  rate  of  seeding,  the 
best  yield  being  obtained  when  the  crop  is  seeded  thinly, 
either  in  rows  or  broadcast.  The  crop  is  harvested  when 
most  of  the  seed  pods  have  turned  brown.  It  may  be 
cut  either  with  a  self-rake  or  a  buncher ;  and  if  a  machine 


FIG.  104.  — Farmers  examining  alfalfa  test  plots  at  the  Ohio  station. 

for  hulling  it  is  available,  the  seeds  may  be  thrashed  out 
immediately,  or  it  may  be  stacked  after  curing  for  some 
time  in  the  bunches  so  as  to  prevent  heating  in  the  stack. 
The  yield  varies  from  2  to  5  bushels  per  acre,  which  at 
present  prices  makes  it  a  profitable  crop. 

295.  Insects  and  diseases.  —  While  many  insects  feed  on 
alfalfa,  seldom  are  they  numerous  enough  to  cause  serious  loss. 
Sometimes  in  the  West,  however,  the  grasshoppers  become  so 
numerous  as  to  cause  serious  injury  to  the  crop.  They  may  be 
controlled  to  some  extent  by  disking  the  field  early  in  the  spring 
to  destroy  the  egg  sacs,  and  later  in  the  season  by  the  use  of  a 
"  hopperdozer." 

The  most  common  fungous  diseases  of  alfalfa  are  the  leaf  spot, 
leaf  rust,  and  root  rot.  The  root  rot  is  commonly  found  in  the 
South,  where  it  also  attacks  the  cotton  plant  and  as  the  spores 


ALFALFA  293 

remain  in  the  soil  there  is  no  way  of  controlling  it  except  by 
seeding  in  fields  free  from  it.  The  leaf  spot  is  quite  injurious 
to  the  crop  in  many  places  and  may  be  best  controlle<i"by  clipping 
and  removing  the  crop  from  the  field,  and  encouraging  new 
growth  which  may  be  vigorous  enough  to  overcome  the  attack. 
No  practical  method  is  known  for  controlling  the  leaf  rust  of 
alfalfa. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE    VETCHES,  SWEET  CLOVERS, 
AND  OTHERS 

THERE  are  several  kinds  of  vetches,  but  only  two, 
hairy  vetch,  Vicia  villosa,  and  common  vetch,  Vicia 
saliva,  are  of  agricultural  importance  in  this  country. 

296.  Hairy   vetch.  —  This    species    is     also    known    as 
sand  vetch  and  winter  vetch.     It  is  a  winter  annual,  with 
long,  trailing,  vine-like  stems,  which  are  not  strong  enough 
to  grow  erect  unless  supported  by  other  plants.     The 
leaflets  are  arranged  in  pairs  on  a  rather  long  midrib,  which 
terminates  in  a  tendril.     The  flowers   are  produced  in 
racemes  which  grow  from  the  axils  of  the  midribs  and  are 
bluish-purple  in  color.     The  seed  pods,  when  they  ma- 
ture, are  straw  colored  and  from  1  to  2  inches  in  length 
and  about  J  inch  wide.     The  seeds  are  black,  round  or 
spherical  in  shape,  and  about  one-half  the  size  of  a  pea. 
The  roots  are  inclined  to  be  fibrous  and  produce  an  abun- 
dance of  tubercles,  the  bacteria  in  which  are  active  late 
in  the  fall  and  early  in  the  spring,  thus  making  the  plant 
a  great  nitrogen  gatherer. 

297.  Adaptation  and  uses.  —  Hairy  vetch  is  very  hardy 
and  is  able  to  withstand  severe  cold  during  the  winter. 
It  grows  well  on  almost  any  well-drained  soil,  but  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  rather  sandy  soil.     The  most  common 
uses  are  as  a  cover  crop  and  as  a  green  manure  crop  for 
plowing  under  to  improve  the  soil.     As  a  cover  crop,  it 

294 


THE   VETCHES,   SWEET  CLOVERS,  AND   OTHERS      295 


is  often  used  in  orchards,  and  as  a  green  manure  crop,  it 

is  especially  adapted  for  following  truck  or  other  early 

maturing  crops.     It  is  sometimes  used  for  hay,  but  unless 

seeded  with  rye  or  wheat,  the  stems  trail  on  the  ground 

and  become  fastened  together  by  the  numerous  tendrils 

into   a  dense   mat,   making  harvesting  difficult.     When 

grown    with    one    of    the 

cereals,  the  stems  are  held 

erect  and  the  hay  is  more 

easily      handled.       When 

seeded  with  rye  or  wheat, 

vetch  makes  an  excellent 

soiling  crop  for  use  in  the 

spring    or    early  summer. 

It   is   sometimes  pastured 

in  the  fall  and  spring,  but 

does   not  stand   tramping 

well,  and  is  more  valuable 

as  hay.    As  a  green  manure 

crop,   it   has    considerable 

merit.     In  the  amount  of 

nitrogen  and  organic  matter 

added   to   the   soil,  it  has 

few   rivals.     When  grown 

for  plowing  under,  it  should 


FIG.  105.  —  Vetch,  showing  flowers, 
leaves,  and  tendrils. 


be  seeded  with  rye,  which  will  not  only  add  considerable 
organic  matter,  but  the  vetch  is  less  twined  together  and 
is  more  easily  turned  under.  Hairy  vetch  is  sometimes 
a  troublesome  weed,  particularly  in  wheat  fields.  The 
seeds  ripen  about  the  same  time  as  wheat,  and  are  not 
easily  separated  from  the  thrashed  grain,  either  by  the  air 
blast  or  with  screens. 

298.    Cultural  methods.  —  While    hairy  vetch  may  be 


296 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


sown  in  the  spring,  it  is  most  commonly  seeded  in  the 
summer  or  early  fall.  If  seeded  in  the  summer  or  fall, 
it  matures  seed  the  next  year  about  the  time  of  wheat 
harvest.  If  seeded  in  the  spring,  the  seeds  are  matured 

late  the  following  fall. 
When  seeded  alone,  it 
may  be  put  in  with 
the  grain  drill  at  the 
rate  of  about  40 
pounds  per  acre.  It 
is  best,  however,  to 
use  only  about  25  or 
30  pounds  of  vetch 
and  add  to  it  about 
4  pecks  of  rye,  this 
combination  making  a 
desirable  crop  for  for- 
age or  green  manure. 
The  time  of  the  seed- 
ing will  depend  upon 
the  preceding  crop. 
If  it  follows  early 
potatoes,  the  seeding 
may  be  done  as  soon 
as  the  potatoes  are 
harvested.  If  corn 
precedes  it,  it  may 
either  be  drilled  in 
the  standing  corn  or  seeded  after  the  corn  is  cut.  Unless 
the  corn  is  an  early  variety,  allowing  early  cutting,  the 
season  may  be  too  far  advanced  for  a  successful  seeding 
of  vetch.  When  grown  for  seed,  the  rate  of  seeding 
should  not  be  more  than  2  pecks  per  acre.  The  yield 


FIG.  106.  —  A  sample  of  hairy  vetch. 


THE   VETCHES,   SWEET  CLOVERS,  AND   OTHERS      297 

of  seed  varies  from  3  to  9  bushels  per  acre,  and  at  present 
prices,  $10  per  bushel,  is  a  profitable  crop.  Most  of 
the  seed  used  is  imported. 

299.  Spring  vetch.  —  Spring  vetch  closely  resembles 
hairy  vetch  in  its  general  appearance  and  manner  of 
growth.  It  is  an  annual,  and  differs  from  hairy  vetch 
in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  pods  and  in  the  size  of  the 
seed.  The  seed  pod  is  black  in  color  and  is  longer  and 
only  about  one-half  as  wide  as  that  of  hairy  vetch,  but 


FIG.  107.  —  A  field  of  vetch  in  full  bloom. 


the  seeds  are  somewhat  longer  than  those  of  the  latter. 
It  is  less  resistant  to  cold  than  hairy  vetch,  and  for  this 
reason  is  less  commonly  grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
United  States.  In  Western  Oregon  and  Washington, 
however,  where  it  is  grown  as  a  winter  crop  with  oats 
or  wheat  for  hay,  it  is  of  considerable  importance.  In  the 
South  it  is  grown  largely  for  green  manure  or  as  a  winter 
crop  with  cereals  for  forage.  Spring  vetch  is  regarded 
with  high  favor  in  England  as  a  soiling  crop,  and  is  more 


298 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


commonly  grown  there  than  the  hairy  vetch,  while  in 
this  country  the  reverse  is  true. 

THE    SWEET    CLOVERS 

The  sweet  clovers  are  natives  of  Central  Asia,   and 
have   been   cultivated  for   many   centuries    in   southern 

Europe,     where     they 

have  been  used  chiefly 
for  bee  pasture,  and  to 
some  extent  for  forage 
and  green  manure. 
Sweet  clover  was  intro- 
duced into  the  United 
States  in  colonial  days, 
but  was  until  within 
recent  years,  and  still 
is,  in  some  sections  of 
the  country  to-day,  con- 
sidered a  troublesome 
weed.  There  are  two 
common  species  of  sweet 
clover,  white  sweet  clo- 
ver, Melilotis  alba,  and 
yellow  sweet  clover, 
Melilotis  officinalis. 

300.  Description. — 
White   sweet   clover  is 

also  known  as  Bokara  clover  and  Melilotis.  In  its  appear- 
ance and  manner  of  growth  it  resembles  alfalfa ;  in  fact, 
when  the  plants  are  young,  they  can  scarcely  be  told  apart. 
The  sweet  clover,  however,  grows  taller  than  alfalfa,  the 
stems  sometimes  reaching  a  height  of  8  or  10  feet.  The 
stems  are  coarser  and  more  woody  than  those  of  alfalfa, 


FIG.  108.  —  A  sweet  clover  plant. 


THE  VETCHES,   SWEET  CLOVERS,   AND   OTHERS      299 

and  not  so  abundantly  supplied  with  leaves.  White 
sweet  clover  is  a  biennial,  the  first  year  growing  from  1 
to  3  feet  in  height,  the  next  year  growing  much  larger  and 
producing  numerous  white  flowers  in  the  form  of  racemes. 
The  plants  bloom  all  summer  long  during  the  second  year 
of  their  growth  and  mature  an  abundance  of  seed,  which 


FIG.  109.  —  Sweet  clover  requires  an  abundance  of  lime  in  the  soil. 
The  plot  at  the  left  was  limed  before  seeding.  Both  plots  were  seeded 
at  the  same  time. 


closely  resembles  that  of  alfalfa.  The  root  system  is 
similar  in  structure  and  extent  to  that  of  alfalfa.  During 
the  first  year,  the  tap  root  is  enlarged  by  the  storing 
of  reserve  plant  food  for  starting  the  second  year's  growth. 
Nodules  are  produced  on  the  roots  in  abundance  by  the 
same  variety  of  bacteria  that  live  on  the  roots  of  alfalfa. 
301.  Distribution  and  adaptation.  —  Sweet  clover  is 
now  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 


300 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


In  the  United  States  it  is  found  in  almost  every  state. 
It  possesses  wide  adaptation  to  soils  and  climate,  growing 
equally  well  in  the  North  and  South.  In  most  places 
it  is  considered  a  weed,  and  may  be  found  growing  in 
waste  places,  along  roadsides  and  railroad  embankments, 
in  gravel  pits  and  stone  quarries.  In  some  few  sections 


FIG.  110.  —  Sweet  clover  growing  by  the  roadside. 

of  the  country,  it  has  recently  become  highly  prized  as  a 
cultivated  crop.  Sweet  clover,  like  alfalfa  and  red  clover, 
is  extremely  sensitive  to  acid  soils,  producing  the  most 
luxuriant  growth  on  well-drained  limestone  areas. 

302.  Uses  of  sweet  clover.  —  The  large,  rank  growth 
of  stems  and  the  well-developed  root  system  have  recently 
called  attention  to  its  value  as  a  soil  improver.  Few 
plants  add  so  much  organic  matter  to  the  soil,  and  at  the 


THE  VETCHES,   SWEET  CLOVERS,  AND   OTHERS     301 

same  time  produce  such  an  extensive  root  system  supplied 
with  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria.  Sweet  clover  is  also 
used  in  some  localities  for  hay,  but  on  account  of  the  large, 
woody  stems  and  a  characteristic  bitter  taste,  it  is  hardly 
probable  that  it  can  successfully  compete  for  this  purpose 
with  alfalfa.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay  before  the  first 
flowers  appear  in  order  to  yield  hay  of  the  best  quality. 
It  is  handled  much  the  same  way  that  alfalfa  is  handled. 
Sweet  clover  may  be  used  for  pasture  or  soiling,  but 
on  account  of  its  unpleasant  bitter  taste,  live  stock  have 
to  become  accustomed  to  it  before  they  acquire  a  liking 
for  it. 

303.  Cultural  methods.  —  Many  farmers  have  expe- 
rienced difficulty  in  securing  a  stand  of  sweet  clover  in 
cultivated  fields,  although  it  may  grow  abundantly  along 
the.  roadside.  There  are  two  reasons  for  the  frequent 
failure  to  secure  a  successful  stand.  Sweet  clover  re- 
quires a  firm,  compact  seed  bed,  and  the  young  plants  do 
not  grow  well  on  loose  soil,  as  do  most  of  the  other  culti- 
vated crops.  Another  reason  for  frequent  poor  stands  is 
the  poor  quality  of  the  seed  secured  on  the  market.  Sweet 
clover  seed  contains  many  hard  seeds  that  do  not  germi- 
nate readily,  sometimes  as  much  as  60  per  cent  of  it 
failing  to  germinate  for  this  reason.  The  seeds  should 
always  be  tested  for  germination  and  the  rate  of  applica- 
tion made  to  correspond  with  the  percentage  of  germina- 
tion. Sometimes  failure  to  secure  a  stand  may  be  due 
to  the  lack  of  sufficient  lime  in  the  soil,  which  should  be 
tested  with  litmus  paper  before  seeding,  unless  it  is  known 
to  be  well  supplied  with  lime.  The  seed  may  be  sown 
broadcast  on  fall  sown  grain  fields  in  early  spring  while 
the  ground  is  honeycombed,  or  it  may  be  seeded  alone 
on  a  firm  seed  bed  in  late  spring  or  summer.  The  usual 


302  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

rate  of  seeding  is  from  20  to  30  pounds  per  acre,  and  it 
must  be  increased  if  a  large  number  of  hard  seeds  are 
present.  Sweet  clover  may  be  seeded  in  midsummer 
or  early  fall  with  vetch  for  green  manure.  They  make 
an  admirable  combination  for  this  purpose,  and  since  both 
are  legumes,  they  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  and  at  the  same 
time  supply  an  abundance  of  organic  matter. 

304.  Yellow   sweet   clover.  —  Yellow    sweet   clover   is 
similar  in  its  habits  of  growth  and  requirements  to  the 
white  sweet  clover.     It  differs  from  it  in  being  a  less  rank 
grower,    having   finer   stems    and   yellow   flowers   which 
appear  from  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  than  those  of  the 
white  sweet  clover.     Yellow  sweet  clover  is  better  adapted 
for  hay  than  for  green  manure. 

BUR   CLOVERS 

305.  Bur  clovers,  Medicago  maculata,  and  M.  denticulata. — 
These  plants  are  natives   of  southern  Europe   and  have  been 
introduced  into  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  where 
they  are  grown  for  pasture  and  hay  and  for  soil  improvement. 
Toothed  medic  (M.  denticulata)  is  grown  largely  in  California 
and  the  other  Southwestern  States,  while  the  Southern  bur  clover 
is  more  common  in  the  Gulf  States.     The  bur  clovers  are  closely 
related  to  alfalfa,  belonging  to  the  same  genus,  Medicago.     They 
are  low  growing  annuals,  the  stems  trailing  along  on  the  ground 
unless  seeded  thickly  or  grown  with  grasses  or  cereals,  which 
hold  them  up.      The  flowers  are  small   and  yellow   and  form 
clusters  about  the  stem.     The  seeds,  when  mature,  are  incased 
in  a  round,  prickly  pod,  from  which  they  are  not  usually  removed 
for  seeding. 

306.  Uses  and  cultural  methods.  —  Southern  bur  clover  is 
most  useful  as  a  cover  crop  to  occupy  the  soil  after  the  cotton  has 
been  removed.     It  is  also  used  as  a  pasture,  and  when  grown  with 
Bermuda  grass,  furnishes  abundant  pasture  of  excellent  quality. 
It  may  be  seeded  in  Bermuda  sods  by  scattering  the  burs  over 
the  sod  in  the  fall  or  by  plowing  shallow  furrows  four  or  five 


THE  VETCHES,   SWEET  CLOVERS,   AND   OTHERS      303 

inches  apart,  dropping  the  seeds  in  and  covering  them  lightly 
with  soil.  The  plants  start  to  grow  about  the  time  the  Bermuda 
grass  is  killed  by  the  frosts  in  the  fall,  and  in  mild  climates  they 
grow  throughout  the  winter.  The  first  year  after  seeding 
clover  in  the  Bermuda  grass  sod  the  plants  are  not  numerous 
enough  to  furnish  much  pasture  but  will  reseed  the  field  for 
the  next  year,  when  the  new  plants  will  furnish  pasture  late  in 
the  fall  and  early  in  the  spring.  For  a  hay  crop,  on  account  of 
its  low  growing  habit,  it  is  best  seeded  in  the  fall  with  oats  or 
wheat,  which  combination  may  be  cut  the  next  summer  and  will 
yield  a  good  tonnage  of  excellent  hay. 

When  used  as  a  green  manure  crop,  from  50  to  60  pounds  of 
the  burs  are  sown  per  acre.  The  plants  grow  during  late  fall 
and  early  spring,  making  a  good  growth  before  being  plowed 
under  for  a  cultivated  crop.  The  bacteria  that  produce  the 
nodules  on  the  roots  of  bur  clover  do  not  seem  to  be  widely  dis- 
tributed, and  fre*quently  it  is  necessary  to  inoculate  the  soil 
before  nodules  are  developed.  The  bacteria  which  work  on  the 
roots  of  bur  clover  also  live  on  the  roots  of  alfalfa  and  sweet 
clover,  and  soils  that  have  produced  these  crops  successfully 
may  be  used  for  inoculating  the  bur  clover. 

JAPAN    CLOVER 

307.  Japan    clover,    Lespedeza    striata.  —  This    plant    is    a 
native  of  eastern  Asia  and  was  introduced  into  the  United  States 
early  in  the  '60's.     During  the  Civil  War  it  was  carried  by  the 
armies  for  feeding  their  horses  and  was  spread  over  most  of  the 
Southern  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.     Since  that  time 
the  area  of  its  growth  has  been  extended  somewhat,  and  it  is 
now  found  growing  from  New  Jersey  westward  to  central  Kansas 
and  southward  to  the  Gulf. 

308.  Description.  —  Japan  clover  is  a  low  growing  annual, 
usually  from  6  to  10  inches  in  height,  although  under  very  favorable 
conditions  it  may  reach  a  height  of  3  feet.     When  the  plants  are 
seeded  thinly  on  the  ground,  the  stems  are  prostrate ;  but  when 
the  stand  is  thick,  the  plants  support  each  other  and  are  erect. 
The  stems  are  fine  and  the  leaves  are  carried  in  three's  and  are 
almost  sessile  on  the   branches,  which  spring   from    the  main 
stems.     The    flowers  are  pink  and   nearly    sessile.      The  seed 


304  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

when  ripe  shatters  badly,  and  during  harvesting  enough  is  left 
on  the  ground  to  reseed  the  field.  The  roots  are  fine  and  com- 
paratively shallow  and  produce  nodules  abundantly. 

309.  Uses  and  cultural  methods.  —  Japan  clover  will  grow 
in  almost  all  types  of  soil  and  is  especially  well  adapted  to  poor 
soils,  furnishing  pasture  on  waste  and  barren  places  where  other 
pasture  plants  will  not  grow  well.  It  is  able  to  withstand  severe 
drought  and  furnishes  forage  during  the  entire  season  from  spring 
until  the  frost  kills  it  in  the  fall.  As  a  pasture  plant  it  is  highly 
prized  on  account  of  its  high  feeding  value,  and  it  is  well  adapted 
to  growing  for  this  purpose  with  Bermuda  grass  and  redtop.  In 
pastures  it  reseeds  itself,  and  although  not  a  perennial,  furnishes 
pasture  year  after  year.  Until  recently  it  was  grown  only  for 
pasture,  but  now  on  good  soils,  where  it  makes  a  good  growth,  it 
is  frequently  cut  for  hay.  Usually  it  will  furnish  two  cuttings 
during  the  season,  although  the  second  crop  may  best  be  cut  for 
seed.  On  good  land  it  yields  from  one  to  two  tons  of  hay  per 
acre.  It  seeds  abundantly,  and  yields  from  5  to  10  bushels  per 
acre,  the  market  price  of  which  is  from  $3  to  $4  per  bushel. 
Almost  all  of  the  seed  on  the  market  is  produced  in  Louisiana  and 
Mississippi.  When  a  new  field  is  to  be  seeded  down  with  bur 
clover,  it  may  best  be  done  in  the  spring  by  scattering  from  15  to 
20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  and  covering  it  with  the  harrow. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  AND  GRAIN 

OF  the  cultivated  legumes  in  this  country,  peas  and 
beans  rank  next  in  importance  to  the  clovers  and  alfalfa. 
In  the  Orient  they  hold  a  place  of  greater  importance  than 
any  other  group  of  legumes.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
peas  and  beans,  but  only  the  important  ones  will  be 
discussed  in  this  chapter. 

THE    SOY   BEAN 

310.  History.  —  The  soy  bean  is  probably  a  native  of 
China  or  Japan.     It  has  been  grown  in  those  countries 
for  centuries,  and  holds  an  important  place  in  the  dietary 
of  the  people.     It  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  a 
century  ago,  and  for  many  years  thereafter  it  was  grown 
only  as  an  ornamental  plant  and  in  botanical  gardens. 
From  Austria-Hungary  in  1875  came  the  first  published 
report  of  an  experiment  with  soy  beans,  in  which  the  writer 
urged  their  more  extensive  culture  and  pointed  out  their 
great  usefulness.     In  the  United  States  soy  beans  have 
been  grown  in  a  very  small  way  for  a  great  many  years, 
but  only  within  the  last  20  or  25  years  have  they  occupied 
a  position  of  any  importance.     During  this  time  they  have 
spread  rapidly  over  the  country  and  have  steadily  gained 
in  favor,  until  now  they  are  regarded  by  many  as  one  of 
our  most  important  crops. 

311.  Description.  —  The    soy    bean,    Glycine    hispida, 

x  305 


306 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


is  a  summer  annual  with  a  branched,  upright,  rather 
woody  stem,  which  grows  from  2  to  3|  feet  or  more  in 
height.  The  leaves  are  trifoliate,  rather  large,  and  quite 
abundant.  The  flowers,  which  are  clustered  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves,  are  small  and  inconspicuous  and  are  either 
white  or  purple  in  color.  Soy  beans  are  ordinarily  self- 
pollinated,  although 
insects  may  produce 
cross-pollination. 
The  pods,  when  they 
develop,  are  short  as 
compared  with  those 
of  the  cowpeas,  being 
from  1  to  2J  inches 
in  length,  containing 
from  2  to  4  seeds. 
The  stems,  leaves,  and 
seed  pods  are  covered 
with  short  hairs,  usu- 
ally reddish  brown  in 
color.  In  general  ap- 
pearance the  soy  bean 
is  more  like  the  peas 
than  like  the  beans. 
The  root  system  of  the  soy  bean  consists  of  a  large  tap 
root,  with  comparatively  few  lateral  branches.  The  root 
growth  is  rather  slight  when  compared  with  that  of  most 
of  the  other  legumes,  but  the  tubercles  that  are  formed 
on  them  are  large  and  abundant. 

There  are  almost  a  hundred  varieties  of  soy  beans 
grown  in  the  United  States.  They  vary  greatly  in  the 
character  of  the  plant,  size  and  shape  of  the  seed,  and  in 
the  length  of  season  required  for  their  growth.  Many 


FIG.  111.  —  A  soy  bean  plant. 


LEGUMES  FOE  FORAGE  AND  GRAIN 


307 


of  them  have  been  imported  from  the  Orient  and  retain 
their  Oriental  names.  Others  are  named  so  as  to  indicate 
the  color  of  the  grain  and  the  length  of  season  required 
for  growth.  Thus  we  find  such  varieties  as  Early  Yellow, 
Medium  Yellow,  Medium  Green,  etc.  There  is  a  great 
difference  among  the  varieties  in  the  amount  of  leaf  and 
stem  growth,  and  also  in  the  retention  of  leaves  and  the 


FIG.  112.  —  A  field  of  soy  beans. 

shattering  of  the  grain.  Certain  varieties  are,  therefore, 
well  adapted  for  forage,  while  others  may  be  better  adapted 
for  the  production  of  grain. 

312.  Distribution  and  adaptation.  —  While  soy  beans 
have  a  rather  wide  distribution  throughout  the  United 
States,  they  are  best  adapted  to  a  climate  similar  to  that 
required  by  corn.  They  do  not  grow  well  as  far  north  as 
the  field  bean  grows,  and  in  the  South  are  largely  replaced 
by  the  cowpea.  They  are,  therefore,  principally  grown  in 


308  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  section  of  the  country  north  of  Kentucky  and  Kansas. 
Soy  beans  will  grow  well  in  almost  all  types  of  soils. 
They  grow  well  on  rather  poor  soils  if  the  nodule-forming 
bacteria  are  present,  under  these  conditions  producing 
a  rather  small  growth  of  leaves  and  stems,  but  a  rela- 
tively high  yield  of  grain.  On  very  fertile  soils  the  growth 
of  leaves  and  stems  is  large,  and  is  frequently  accompanied 
by  relatively  low  yields  of  grain.  Soy  beans  are  not  so 
sensitive  to  wet  soils  as  many  legumes,  although  they 
grow  best  on  well-drained  land;  neither  are  they  as 
sensitive  to  acid  soils  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  although 
limestone  soils  are  most  favorable  for  their  growth. 

313.  Uses.  —  In  China,  Japan,  and  other  Oriental 
countries  soy  beans  hold  an  important  place  as  a  supple- 
ment to  rice  in  the  dietary  of  the  people,  but  in  the  United 
States  they  have  never  attained  much  favor  as  human 
food,  probably  on  account  of  the  characteristic  flavor 
which  they  have  after  cooking,  that  is  not  relished  by 
Americans.  In  Europe  oil  is  extracted  from  the  grain, 
which,  after  being  refined,  is  used  in  combination  with 
other  oils  for  culinary  purposes.  The  crude  oil  is  used  for 
paints,  varnishes,  soap,  and  also  for  lubricating  purposes. 
In  this  country  the  grain  is  almost  entirely  used  for  seed 
and  for  the  feeding  of  live  stock.  As  a  stock  food  soy 
beans  may  be  utilized  as  grain,  hay,  soiling,  and  pasture. 
The  great  demand  for  seed,  on  account  of  the  rapidly 
increasing  acreage  devoted  to  the  crop,  has  resulted  in 
nearly  all  of  the  crop  being  harvested  for  grain,  which  is 
sold  for  seed.  It  cannot  be  long,  however,  before  the 
production  of  grain  will  exceed  the  demand  for  seed, 
which  will  result  in  the  price  per  bushel  being  based  upon 
the  feeding  value.  Soy  beans  are  almost  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  gluten  meal,  cotton  seed  meal,  and  other  con- 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  AND   GRAIN  309 

centrates.  They  may  be  fed  to  all  classes  of  live  stock, 
usually  being  ground  and  fed  in  combination  with  other 
seeds. 

314.  Soy  beans,  because  of  their  erect  growth,  are 
more  easily  handled  as  hay  than  are  cowpeas.  The  hay, 
to  be  of  the  best  quality,  must  be  handled  in  such  a  way 
as  to  retain  as  many  of  the  leaves  as  possible,  since  the 
greater  part  of  the  nutrients  is  carried  in  them.  Soy 
bean  hay  of  good  quality  compares  favorably  in  feeding 
value  with  alfalfa  hay.  Soy  beans,  hold  an  important 
place  as  a  soiling  crop,  since  they  furnish  forage  in  late 
summer  or  early  fall  when  the  pasture  is  shortest.  Some- 
times they  are  fed  with  some  non-leguminous  forage  crop, 
such  as  millet  or  sorghum,  to  furnish  protein  in  the  ration. 
Frequently  soy  beans  are  grown  for  the  silo,  but  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  while  they  alone  do  not  make  good 
silage,  in  combination  with  corn  they  make  a  desirable 
mixture  for  this  purpose.  Silage  made  from  soy  beans 
alone,  when  fed  to  dairy  cows,  imparts  a  disagreeable 
odor  to  the  milk.  When  mixed  with  corn,  at  the  rate  of 
2  tons  of  corn  and  1  ton  of  soy  beans,  this  objection  is 
overcome,  and  the  feeding  value  of  the  silage  is  increased 
over  that  of  silage  made  from  corn  alone.  Soy  beans  are 
not  well  adapted  for  pasture  and  are  not  often  grown  for 
this  purpose.  Sometimes  they  are  grown  for  hog  pasture, 
but  they  are  not  as  good  for  this  purpose  as  is  rape.  Hogs 
are  often  turned  into  the  field  after  the  crop  is  harvested 
to  gather  the  shattered  beans,  and  sometimes  they  are 
allowed  to  gather  the  entire  crop.  As  a  green  manure 
crop,  soy  beans  are  about  equal  to  clover  in  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  added  to  the  soil  if  the  entire  crop  is  plowed 
under.  If  only  the  roots  and  stubble  are  considered,  soy 
beans  add  only  about  one-sixth  as  much  nitrogen  as  the 


310  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

roots  and  stubble  of  red  clover.  Soy  beans,  however, 
have  the  advantage  of  making  their  growth  in  a  com- 
paratively short  period  of  time. 

315.  Cultural  methods.  —  The  bacteria  that  form  the 
nodules  on  the  roots  of  the  soy  beans  are  not  so  generally 
distributed  as  those  that  work  on  the  roots  of  the  clover. 
In  many  cases,  especially  in  sections  where  the  crop  is 
new,  it  is  desirable  to  inoculate  the  soil.     If  the  land  has 
not  previously  grown  the  crop,  usually  but  few  nodules 
will  be  produced  the  first  year  without  inoculation,  and 
the  crop  will  have  to  make  its  growth  from  the  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.     It  is  especially  desirable  to  inoculate  soils 
that  are  low  in  nitrogen.     If  the  crop  is  grown  without 
inoculation  on  the  same  field  for  two  or  three  years,  the 
soil  will  usually  become  inoculated  from  the  few  bacteria 
that  may  be  carried  to  the  field  with  the  seed,  which 
will  multiply  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  effect  the  inoculation 
of  the  entire  field.     Ordinarily  no  fertilizer  is  applied  to 
the  soil  for  the  growing  of  soy  beans,  although  it  maybe 
profitable  to  treat  poor  soil  with  barnyard  manure  or 
mineral  fertilizers.     The  seed  bed  required  for  soy  beans 
is  similar  to  that  required  for  corn. 

316.  Seeding.  —  Soy  beans  should  not  be  seeded  until 
rather  late  in  the  season  after  the  danger  from  frost  is 
past,  and  the  soil  is  well  warmed  up.     In  most  places, 
this  will  be  about  the  time  corn  planting  is  finished.   The 
rate  of  seeding  will  depend  upon  the  use  to  be  made  of 
the  crop.     If  it  is  grown  for  the  grain,  the  usual  method 
is  to  seed  in  rows  28  to  30  inches  apart,  using  about  3 
pecks  of  seed  per  acre.     If  grown  for  forage,  the  largest 
yield  and  the  best  quality  of  hay,  on  account  of  the  fine- 
ness of  the  stems,  may  be  obtained  when  the  seed  is  drilled 
close  at  the  rate  of  6  to  8  pecks  per  acre,  the  exact  rate 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  AND   GRAIN  311 

depending  upon  the  variety,  some  kinds  having  smaller 
seeds  than  others.  Soy  beans  rapidly  decrease  in  vi- 
tality with  age,  and  seeds  more  than  one  year  old 
should  always  be  tested  before  seeding.  When  drilled 
close,  no  cultivation  is  given  the  plants,  but  when  seeded 
in  rows,  they  should  be  cultivated  frequently  during  the 
period  of  early  growth. 

317.    Harvesting.  —  The  best  quality  of  hay  may  be 
secured  if  the  plants  are  cut  at  the  time  the  pods  are  well 


FIG.   113.  —  Soy  beans  growing  in  corn. 

formed  and  before  many  have  matured.  If  cutting  is 
delayed  until  after  this  time  in  most  varieties,  many  of 
the  leaves,  which  form  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  hay, 
will  be  lost,  and  the  stems  will  become  woody  and  unpal- 
atable. On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  the  leaves 
are  broken  off  when  dry,  the  curing  should  be  done  in  the 
cock.  After  cutting,  the  plants  are  allowed  to  lie  in  the 
swath  for  a  day  or  so,  and  the  drying  can  then  be  com- 
pleted with  less  loss  of  leaves  by  cocking.  After  a  few 


312  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

days  in  the  cock,  the  hay  may  be  stored.  When  used  for 
silage,  the  cutting  may  be  delayed  until  the  beans  are  well 
formed,  as  the  loss  in  this  case  is  slight,  since  the  handling 
is  completed  while  the  plants  are  green. 

When  soy  beans  are  harvested  for  the  seed,  they  should 
be  cut  after  the  pods  have  turned  brown  or  black  and 
one-half  or  more  of  the  leaves  have  fallen.  A  mower 
with  a  side  delivery  attachment  or  a  self-rake  may  be 
used,  which  will  prevent  the  shelling  and  loss  of  the  beans 
by  the  passing  of  the  mower  wheels  over  the  cut  swath. 
After  cutting  they  should  be  piled  in  cocks  and  allowed 
to  cure  until  ready  for  thrashing.  When  thoroughly 
dry,  they  may  be  thrashed  by  tramping  or  with  a  flail, 
although  large  acreages  are  best  thrashed  with  an  ordinary 
grain  thrasher,  by  removing  the  concaves  and  running  the 
machine  at  a  slow  rate  of  speed.  After  thrashing,  the 
beans  should  be  spread  out  to  dry  before  bagging  or  bulk- 
ing in  the  bin.  The  yield  of  grain  per  acre  varies  from 
10  to  25  bushels,  the  average  probably  being  about  15 
bushels. 

THE     COWPEA 

The  cowpea  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  India  or  Persia, 
and  from  there  to  have  been  introduced  into  China  at  an 
early  date.  It  was  not  known  in  Europe  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  United  States 
it  was  introduced  into  South  Carolina  or  Georgia  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  not  of  great  impor- 
tance in  this  country,  however,  until  within  the  last  few 
decades,  but  now  it  is  the  most  important  legume  of  the 
Southern  States. 

318.  Description.  —  The  cowpea,  Vigna  unguiculata, 
is  an  annual  with  a  habit  of  growth  varying  with  the 


LEGUMES  FOR  FOE  AGE  AND  GRAIN 


313 


variety  from  a  single  upright,  branching  stem  to  a  pro- 
fusely trailing  form.  Almost  all  varieties  have  the  trail- 
ing habit  of  growth,  and  under  favorable  conditions  of 
climate  and  soil  some  of  them  produce  stems  15  feet  or 
more  in  length.  The  stems  are  marked  with  longitu- 
dinal grooves,  and  the  color  of  the  stems  is  associated  with 
that  of  the  leaves,  varying  in  this 
respect  from  pale  to  dark  green. 
The  leaves  are  trifoliate  and  are 
larger  than  those  of  the  soy  bean. 
The  flowers  are  borne  singly  and 
are  much  larger  than  those  of  the 
soy  bean,  being  more  nearly  the 
size  of  those  of  the  sweet  pea.  The 
flowers  are  whitish,  violet,  or  yellow 
in  color,  and  rival  the  sweet  pea 
in  beauty.  The  pods  are  long, 
straight,  or  slightly  curved,  and 
many  seeded.  The  seeds  vary 
greatly  in  size  and  may  be  either  smooth  or  wrinkled. 
They  vary  also  in  color,  the  common  colors  being  white, 
yellow,  green,  brown,  and  mottled.  The  stem,  leaves,  and 
pod  of  the  cowpea,  unlike  those  of  the  soy  bean,  are  not 
covered  with  hair.  In  appearance  the  cowpea  more  closely 
resembles  the  field  and  garden  bean  than  it  does  the  soy 
bean. 

The  root  system  of  the  cowpea  consists  of  a  well-devel- 
oped tap  root,  which  gives  off  lateral  branches  from  the 
upper  part.  These  grow  out  horizontally  for  some  distance 
and  then  grow  downward  rather  deeply.  The  roots  of 
the  cowpea  are  more  extensive  than  those  of  the  soy 
bean,  being  more  numerous  and  penetrating  more  deeply 
into  the  soil. 


FIG.  114.  —  Pods  of  cow- 
peas  and  soy  beans. 


314  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

There  are  some  15  important  varieties  of  the  cowpeas 
grown  in  the  United  States,  and  they  vary  much  in  their 
habits  of  growth,  most  of  them  being  intermediate  between 
the  erect  and  the  extremely  long  vined  varieties.  They 
also  vary  greatly  in  their  adaptation  to  soils  and  climates 
and  in  their  retention  of  leaves  and  the  coarseness  of  their 
stems. 

319.  Adaptation  and  distribution.  —  Cowpeas  are  well 
adapted  to  a  warm  climate  and  a  long  growing  season. 
For  this  reason  they  are  better  adapted  to  the  southern 
than  to  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States.     Only  a 
few  of  the  earlier  varieties  mature  as  far  north  as  central 
Ohio.     Cowpeas  are  a  very  important  crop  in  the  South, 
holding  a  place  there  similar  to  that  held  by  red  clover  in 
the  North.     They  will  grow  on  almost  all  types  of  soil. 
They  are  more  sensitive  to  wet  soil  than  are  the  soy 
beans,  but  they  are  less  affected  by  lack  of  lime,  and  have 
on  this   account   a  wider  distribution  than   soy  beans. 
They  grow  well  on  rather  poor  soils,  and  for  this  reason 
are  valuable  for  green  manure. 

320.  Uses.  —  The  cowpea  is  used  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  soy  bean.     In  China  it  is  even  more  commonly 
used  in  human  diet  than  the  soy  bean.     Like  the  latter, 
it  may  be  used  for  the  feeding  of  live  stock  and  for  green 
manuring.     The  hay,  when  properly  made,  is  of  equal 
feeding  value  with  alfalfa  hay,  although  it  is  not  quite  so 
palatable.     It  is  an  excellent  soiling  crop,  and  the  combi- 
nation of  cowpeas  and  corn,  when  grown  for  this  purpose, 
yields  from  10  to  25  tons  of  forage  per  acre.     Like  the  soy 
bean,  it  is  not  a  first-class  pasture  crop,  but  is  sometimes 
used  as  pasture  for  sheep  or  hogs. 

One  reason  why  this  crop  is  so  valuable  in  the  South 
is  its  usefulness  as  a  green  manure  crop  in  building 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  AND   GRAIN 


315 


up  the  soil  fertility.  When  the  entire  crop  is  plowed 
under,  the  large  growth  of  vegetable  matter,  containing 
a  large  amount  of  nitrogen,  is  added  to  the  soil.  It  is" 
also  of  great  value  in  building  up  the  soil  when  grown  for 

hay  or  grain,  since  it , 

has  a  rather  deep  root 
system  and  consider- 
able nitrogen  is  added 
to  the  soil  if  only  the 
roots  and  stubble  are 
plowed  under.  If  the 
crop  is  used  for  hay, 
much  of  the  vegetable 
matter  finds  its  way 
back  to  the  soil  as 
barnyard  manure. 

321.  Cultural  meth- 
ods. —  The  cultural 
methods  employed  in 
growing  cowpeas  are 
similar  to  those  de- 
scribed for  soy  beans, 
except  perhaps  in  the 
rate  of  seeding  which 
is  usually  a  little  lighter 
for  the  cowpea.  When 
seeded  in  rows,  3  to 

4  pecks  per  acre  are  required,  and  from  4  to  8  pecks 
when  drilled.  In  the  South,  and  also  in  many  sections 
farther  north,  cowpeas  are  frequently  seeded  with  other 
crops  like  corn,  sorghum,  or  millet.  When  seeded  with 
other  crops  they  are  used  either  for  hay  or  for  soiling. 
Cowpea  hay  is  rather  difficult  to  cure,  but  when  grown 


115.  —  Cowpeas  and  corn  make  ex- 
cellent forage. 


316  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

in  combination  with  millets  or  other  crops,  the  curing 
is  accomplished  with  less  difficulty.  Sometimes  cow- 
peas  are  seeded  in  the  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  cul- 
tivation, and  used  either  for  pasture  after  the  corn  is 
harvested  or  plowed  under  the  following  spring  for  green 
manure.  Usually  a  good  crop  of  hay  may  be  secured  after 


FIG.   116.  — A  field  of  cowpeas. 

a  small  grain  crop,  if  the  cowpeas  are  seeded  promptly 
after  the  grain  is  removed.  Cowpeas  should  be  cut  for 
hay  soon  after  one-third  of  the  pods  are  ripe,  for  if  cutting 
be  delayed  much  longer  than  this,  many  of  the  peas  will 
be  lost  and  the  stems  will  be  less  palatable. 
i 

THE     FIELD     PEA 

The  field  pea  is  a  native  of  Italy  and  has  been  grown 
in  America  for  many  years.  It  is  sometimes  known  as  the 
Canadian  field  pea,  and  this  name  is  applied  not  because 


LEGUMES  FOR   FOE  AGE  AND   GRAIN 


317 


Canada  is  its  native  home,  but  because  it  first  came  into 
general  use  there  and  from  there  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States. 

322.  Description.  —  The  field  pea,  Pisum  sativum,  is 
a  summer  annual,  with  hollow,  sparingly  branched  stems, 
which  grow  from  2  to  5  feet  in  height.     The  plants  in  the 
early  stages  of  growth  are  erect,  but  later  become  decum- 
bent unless  supported. 

The  leaves  are  large, 
from  5  to  7  inches  long, 
and  carried  in  pairs. 
Large,  leafy  stipules 
develop  at  the  base  of 
the  leaves,  and  the 
midrib  terminates  in  a 
tendril,  which  gives  the 
plant  somewhat  of  a 
climbing  habit.  The 
flowers,  which  are  large 
and  usually  white  or 
purple  in  color,  are 
borne  on  short  flower 
stalks  arising  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves.  The  pods,  which  are  flat  and  from  2 
to  4  inches  long,  contain  several  seeds,  which,  when  ma- 
ture, are  usually  green  in  color.  The  leaves,  stem,  and 
pods  are  smooth,  and  when  green  are  very  succulent  and 
are  relished  by  all  kinds  of  live  stock. 

323.  Distribution    and    adaptation.  —  Field    peas    are 
adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  climate,  and  make  their  best 
growth   during   the   early   part   of   the   growing   season. 
They  may  be  grown  far  up  in  Canada,  and  are  especially 
adapted   to   southern  Canada  and  the  Northern  States 


FIG.   117.  —  Canada  field  peas. 


318  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

of  the  United  States.  Field  peas  do  not  do  well  in  warm 
climates,  and  are  not  usually  profitable  south  of  the  soy 
bean  section.  Any  soil  that  will  grow  oats  will  also  grow 
field  peas.  They  are,  however,  best  adapted  to  clay 
loams,  well  supplied  with  lime.  While  they  grow  well  on 
moist  soils,  wet  soils  are  unfavorable  to  their  growth. 
They  do  not  thrive  on  light,  dry  soils,  and  when  grown 
on  very  fertile  soils  an  excessive  growth  of  vine  is  pro- 
duced, with  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  yield  of 
grain. 

324.  Uses.  —  The  field  pea  is  highly  prized  as  a  feed 
for  live  stock.  It  may  be  used  as  hay,  pasture,  or  for  soil- 
ing, and  the  grain  may  be  fed  to  all  kinds  of  live  stock. 
Usually  the  grain  is  ground  and  fed  in  combination  with 
other  grains.  A  mixture  of  field  peas  with  wheat  bran  or 
wheat  middlings  makes  a  good  feed  for  milch  cows,  growing 
hogs  and  sheep,  because  of  its  high  protein  content.  In 
Canada,  field  peas  are  used  by  many  stockmen  during 
the  first  half  of  the  fattening  period,  and  this  is  said  to  be 
responsible  for  the  superior  quality  of  meat  produced 
there.  When  grown  for  the  grain,  the  straw,  if  in  good 
condition,  makes  fair  roughage  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
Field  peas  are  usually  seeded  with  oats  or  other  grains 
when  grown  for  hay,  and  on  account  of  the  high  protein 
content  of  the  peas,  together  they  make  a  forage  of  high 
feeding  value  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock.  As  a  soiling  crop, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  usually  seeded  with  oats,  it  becomes 
available  early  in  the  season,  about  the  time  pastures 
are  declining,  and  affords  a  highly  nutritious  and  palatable 
food.  Field  peas  may  be  grown  with  oats  for  pasture, 
and  may  be  cropped  off  several  times  during  the  season 
if  sufficient  time  for  new  growth  intervenes.  As  a  green 
manure  crop,  field  peas  are  especially  valuable,  since  they 


LEGUMES  FOR   FORAGE  AND   GRAIN  319 

may  be  grown  farther  north  than  most  legumes  and  at  the 
same  time  they  add  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  and  humus 
to  the  soil,  although  they  have  but  a  short  period  of 
growth. 

325.  Cultural    methods.  —  The    field    peas    are    hardy 
and     vigorous    growers,     and    do    not    require    a    very 
fine   or  well-prepared   seed   bed.     The  seeding  is   some- 
times done  by  sowing  them   broadcast   on   the   ground 
before  plowing  and  covering  them  by  shallow  plowing. 
Better  results,  however,  are  obtained  if  the  seed  bed  is 
first  prepared  and  the  seed  drilled  in  with  the  grain  drill. 
When  seeded  alone,  from  2  to  3J  bushels,  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  peas,  are  required  per  acre.     More  often, 
however,  they  are  seeded  with  oats,  from  one  to  two 
bushels  of  peas  with  1  to  1J  of  oats  making  a  desirable 
combination.     Field   peas   are   cool  weather  plants,  the 
seeds  germinating  at  low  temperature,  and  for  best  results, 
seeding  should  be  done  early  in  the  spring,  usually  as  soon 
as  the  ground  may  be  prepared. 

326.  Harvesting.  —  When    grown    for    hay,    the    peas 
should  be  cut  when  in  full  bloom,  but  if  grown  with  oats, 
the  cutting  should  be  done  when  the  oat  grains  are  in 
the   dough   stage.     The   peas,    when   grown   alone,    are 
rather  difficult  to  cure,  but  when  grown  with  oats,  this 
difficulty  is  largely  overcome.     The  best  quality  of  hay 
may  be  obtained  if  it  is  cured  in  the  cock,  as  are  soy  beans 
or  cowpeas.     When  grown  with  oats,  from  2  to  3  tons  of 
hay  may  be  expected  per  acre. 

When  grown  for  grain,  the  harvesting  may  best  be  done 
with  a  mower  equipped  with  a  side  delivery  attachment  or 
a  self-rake.  The  grain  may  be  thrashed  with  a  grain 
thrasher,  if  the  concaves  are  removed  and  the  machines 
run  at  a  low  rate  of  speed.  The  yield  of  grain  varies 


320  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

from  15  to  40  bushels  per  acre,  the  average  being  about 
20  bushels  in  sections  favorable  to  their  growth.  One 
objection  to  a  more  general  use  of  the  field  pea  is  the  rela- 
tively high  price  of  the  seed,  which  usually  commands  a 
price  of  from  3  to  4  cents  per  pound. 

FIELD     BEANS 

327.  Field  beans.  —  There  are  two  important  species  of  field 
beans  grown  in  the  United  States,  the  common  or  native  bean, 
Phaseolus  vulgaris,  and  the  lima  bean,  Phaseolus  lunatus.     They 
are  closely  related  to  the  soy  bean  and  the  cowpea  and  resemble 
them  in  general  appearance  and  manner  of  growth.     Field  beans 
are  annuals  that  grow  best  in  cool,  moist  climates  and  on  loamy 
soils.     They  are  grown  for  their  ripened  seeds,  which  form  a  com- 
mon article  of  human  diet.     In  Michigan,  New  York,  California, 
and  in  some  sections  of  other  states  they  are  quite  important 
field  crops  and  are  usually  grown  in  a  regular  rotation.     They 
may  be  seeded  with  a  drill  in  rows  28  or  30  inches  apart  or  they 
may  be  hilled  to  permit  of  cross-cultivation.     The  cultivation  is 
similar  to  that  given  the  soy  bean.     In  harvesting,  the  vines 
are  cut  off  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  means  of  a  bean 
puller.     They  are  then  allowed  to  cure  for  a  short  time,  after 
which  they  may  be  hauled  to  the  barn  for  storage,  or  direct  to 
the  thrasher.     Sometimes  they  are  handled  in  the  field  much 
the  same  as  hay,  being  raked  up  with  a  long  rake  and  loaded  with 
a  hay  loader.     After  thrashing  they  are  cleaned  and  graded  for 
the  market.     The  straw  is  valuable  as  feed  for  sheep  or  cattle. 

THE     PEANUT 

328.  Description.  —  An  interesting  member  of  the  legume 
family  is  the  peanut,  Arachis  hypogcea.     Many  persons  who  eat 
peanuts  do  not  know  that  they  are  closely  related  to  peas  and 
beans  and  that  the  plants,  in  symbiosis  with  bacteria,  produce 
nodules  on  the  roots  like  other  legumes.     The  peanut  is  a  rather 
low  growing  annual  with  more  or  less  trailing  stems  and  with 
the  unusual  habit  of  maturing  its  fruit  underground,  differing  in 
this  respect  from  other  cultivated  legumes.     The  plants  vary  in 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  AND    GRAIN 


321 


height  from  one  to  two  feet,  and  in  the  erectness  of  the  stems  with 
variety,  some  varieties  growing  almost  erect,  while  others  are 
more  or  less  prostrate.  The  flowers  are  small  and  yellow  in 
color,  and  are  produced  on  small  stems  growing  from  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  After  the  bloom  falls,  the  flower  stem  elongates 
and  grows  into  the  ground.  The  tip  end  soon  enlarges  and 
becomes  the  pod  which 
incloses  the  nuts. 

329.  Adaptation.  — 
The  peanut    is    a   tender 
plant,  and  is  easily  killed 
by  frost.     It  is  grown  suc- 
cessfully only  in  warm  cli- 
mates with  long  growing 
season.      In  the  United 
States,    they    are    grown 
principally  in  Virginia  and 
North    Carolina,    certain 
parts    of    Tennessee,    Ar- 
kansas, and  Alabama,  and 
in  a  smaller  way  in  almost 
all  sections  of  the  South- 
ern States.     They  are  also 
grown  extensively  in 
India,  Africa,  and  South 
America.      Peanuts,  since 
they    produce     the    nuts 
underground,  are  best 
adapted  to  a  loose,  loamy 

soil.     Peanuts  of  the  best  FlG"  118.  — Root  of^peanut  plant,  with 

quality  have   light   shells 

and  grow  in  light,  sandy  soils.  Heavy  soils  are  not  suitable  for 
growing  them,  because  the  nut-bearing  stems  cannot  penetrate 
the  ground  readily  and  because  heavy  soils  stain  the  hulls.  The 
best  yields  are  produced  on  soils  well  supplied  with  lime,  and  it 
is  often  necessary  to  supply  lime  to  those  deficient  in  this  element 
before  a  profitable  crop  can  be  grown. 

330.  Uses.  —  "Fresh  roasted  peanuts"  is  a  familiar  phrase 
to  any  one  who  has  attended  a  circus  or  a  county  fair,  and 


322  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

salted  peanuts  are  on  sale  in  almost  every  confectionery  store. 
Many  bushels  are  consumed  annually  in  these  forms,  and  large 
amounts  are  used  in  the  making  of  peanut  oil  and  in  the  feeding 
of  live  stock.  Peanut  oil  is  similar  to  olive  and  cottonseed 
oils,  and  the  making  of  it  is  an  important  industry  in  certain 
parts  of  Europe.  Few  peanuts  are  used  in  the  United  States  in 
the  production  of  oil,  but  large  amounts  are  used  annually  for 
the  feeding  of  live  stock.  They  are  readily  eaten  by  almost  all 
kinds  of  live  stock,  but  are  most  often  fed  to  hogs.  Sometimes 
the  hogs  are  turned  into  the  field  about  the  time  the  nuts  are 
ripe  and  allowed  to  harvest  the  entire  crop.  When  grown  for 
the  market,  the  vines  are  used  for  hay  and  as  much  as  2  or  3  tons 
may  be  secured  per  acre.  Peanut  hay  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of 
live  stock,  and  makes  a  palatable  and  nutritious  feed. 

331.  Cultural  methods.  —  Peanuts  are  planted  in  the  spring 
as  soon  as  the  soil  is  well  warmed  up.  They  may  be  drilled  in 
rows  30  to  36  inches  apart,  or  they  may  be  planted  in  hills  to 
permit  of  cross-cultivation.  Seeds  of  the  small  varieties  are 
planted  without  removing  them  from  the  hulls,  but  usually  those 
of  the  large  varieties  are  removed  from  the  hull  before  planting. 
One  peck  of  hulled  seeds  or  6  pecks  in  the  hull  are  required  to 
plant  an  acre.  In  the  large  varieties  from  one  and  one-half  to 
two  pecks  of  hulled  nuts  will  be  required  per  acre.  Cultivation 
during  early  growth  is  similar  to  that  given  peas  or  beans. 
When  the  peanuts  are  mature,  they  must  be  promptly  harvested, 
or  they  may  start  to  grow.  Harvesting  is  done  by  an  implement 
similar  to  a  potato  digger,  which  raises  them  from  the  ground. 
The  vines,  with  the  nuts  attached,  are  then  put  in  stacks,  which 
are  built  around  a  frame  work,  to  allow  them  to  dry  rapidly. 
After  they  have  been  in  the  stack  for  a  few  days,  the  nuts  are 
then  removed  from  the  vines,  either  by  machinery  or  by  hand, 
and  placed  in  large  bags  ready  for  the  market  or  for  feeding.  If 
grown  for  market,  the  nuts  are  sorted  and  only  the  best  grades 
are  marketed,  while  the  poorer  grades  are  used  for  feeding.  The 
yield  varies  from  30  to  over  100  bushels  per  acre,  60  bushels 
being  considered  a  good  yield. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  ROOT  CROPS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS 

THE  term  root  crop  is  applied  to  a  class  of  plants  which 
store  up  during  the  first  season  the  excessive  nutrients  not 
needed  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  plant,  in  the  enlarged 
tap  root  and  base  of  the  stem.  The  storing  of  the  food 
supply  is  a  provision  by  the  plant  for  the  nourishing  of 
the  next  generation,  in  the  case  of  annuals,  and  for  the 
production  of  a  seed  stalk  in  the  biennials.  In  some  cases, 
the  food  is  stored  up  in  thickened  leaves,  as  is  the  case  in 
cabbage,  while  in  kohlrabi  it  is  stored  only  in  the  thickened 
stem.  In  the  case  of  rape  the  excess  of  nutrients  is  stored 
in  the  slightly  thickened  leaves.  While  rape  and  kohlrabi 
are  not  grown  for  their  roots,  they  are  closely  related  to 
the  root  crops  and  are  usually  classified  with  them. 

With  the  exception  of  rape  and  sugar  beets,  the  root 
crops  discussed  in  this  chapter  do  not  hold  an  important 
place  in  American  agriculture,  but  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent  they  are  very  important  crops.  In  the 
United  States  the  use  of  the  silage  crop  largely  takes  the 
place  occupied  by  root  crops  in  the  feeding  of  live  stock 
in  Europe.  The  fact  that  about  90  per  cent  of  the  root 
plants  is  water  and  also  that  they  require  a  large  amount  of 
hand  labor  in  their  culture  has  been  responsible  for  their 
unpopularity  in  this  country. 

332.  The  beet  family.  —  The  beet,  Beta  vulgaris,  has 
been  developed  by  long  selection  for  a  special  purpose 

323 


324  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

into  four  distinct  types.  They  are  :  first,  the  garden  beet, 
grown  for  table  use ;  second,  chard,  grown  for  its  leaves, 
which  are  used  as  greens ;  third,  the  sugar  beet,  grown  for 
the  sugar ;  and  fourth,  mangel-wurzels,  grown  for  feeding 
live  stock.  Only  the  last  two  types  will  be  discussed  in 
this  book. 

THE     SUGAR     BEET 

333.  History.  —  While  beets  have  been  cultivated  for 
many  centuries,  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  that  they  were  found  to  be  of  value  as  a 
source  of  sugar.     This  fact  was  discovered  by  a  German 
chemist  who,   having  analyzed  several  different  plants, 
found  that  the  beet  contained  the  highest  percentage  of 
sugar   of  the   plants   analyzed.     Many   difficulties   were 
encountered  in  the  extraction  of  the  sugar,  and  it  was 
not  until  1812  that  beet  sugar  appeared  on  the  market, 
and   then   only   in   small   quantities.     Since   beet   sugar 
first  appeared  in  a  commercial  form,  great  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  methods  of  manufacture  and  in  the 
improvement  of  the  beet  by  selection  for  higher  sugar 
content.     To-day  the  beet  sugar  business  is  a  great  in- 
dustry, employing  great  armies  of  men,  women,  and  children, 
the  product  of  whose  labor  holds  a  most  important  place 
in  the  feeding  of  the  nation.     Sugar  beets  were  first  in- 
troduced in  the  United  States  in  1839,  but  they  were  not 
grown  successfully,  and  no  permanent  place  was  accorded 
them  in  the  agriculture  of  this  country  until  1869,  when 
they  were  first  successfully  grown  and  a  sugar  factory 
was  established  in  California. 

334.  Description.  —  The  beet  plant  has  large,  broad 
leaves  which  spring  from  the  crown  of  the  enlarged  tap 
root.     The  enlarged  root,  or  the  beet,  grows  almost  entirely 
underground,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  mangel- 


THE  HOOT  CROPS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS   825 


wurzel.  The  root  is  broadest  a  short  distance  beyond 
the  rounded  crown,  and  from  this  point  tapers  gradually 
to  the  tip.  The  flesh  and  stem  of  the  beet  are  white. 
The  sugar  content  varies  from  5  to  20  per  cent,  15  per  cent 
being  considered  a  good  sugar  content,  and  the  crop  is 
usually  not  profitable  when  the  percentage  of  sugar  falls 
below  this  amount.  There  can  be  found  no  more  striking 
example  of  the  possibilities 
of  crop  improvement  by  the 
method  of  selection,  than  is 
afforded  by  the  increased 
sugar  content  of  the  beet  ac- 
complished by  this  method. 
When  the  German  chemist 
determined  the  sugar  content 
of  the  beet  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  it  con- 
tained less  than  6  per  cent  of 
sugar.  Since  that  time,  by 
the  selection  of  plants  for  high 
sugar  content,  many  crops 
now  yield  from  15  to  20  per 
cent. 

335.  Production.  —  The 
world's  average  annual  pro- 
duction of  beet  sugar  for  the  years  1907-1911  was  6700 
thousand  tons.  Of  this  amount  Germany's  annual  pro- 
duction was  slightly  more  than  2  million  tons,  or  almost 
one-third  of  the  world's  production;  Russia,  during  the 
same  period,  producing  approximately  1400  thousand  tons, 
and  Austria-Hungary  1250  thousand  tons,  the  total  pro- 
duction of  these  three  countries  being  more  than  two- 
thirds  that  of  the  entire  world.  The  average  annual  pro- 


FIG.  119.  —  A  sugar  beet. 


326  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

duction  of  the  United  States  for  these  years  was  433 
thousand  tons.  For  this  five-year  period  the  world's  pro- 
duction of  beet  sugar  was  slightly  less  than  that  of  cane 
sugar. 

In  the  United  States,  Colorado  is  the  leading  beet  sugar 
producing  state,  her  average  annual  production  for  the 
years  1911-1912  being  170  thousand  tons;  California  is 
next  with  150  thousand  tons,  and  Michigan  third  with 
110  thousand  tons.  These  three  states  during  the  two 
years  mentioned  produced  over  two-thirds  of  the  total 
beet  sugar  production  of  the  United  States.  Other 
states  in  which  small  amounts  are  produced  are  Idaho, 
Utah,  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 

336.  Adaptation.  —  Sugar  beets  do  not  have  a  wide  dis- 
tribution when  compared  with  other  farm  crops.     Soil 
and  climate  are  important  factors  in  growing  beets  with 
high  sugar  content,  and  consequently  these  factors  de- 
termine to  a  considerable  extent  the  area  of  their  profitable 
culture.     The  beet  grows  best  on  sandy  or  sandy  loam 
soils,  but  is  not  adapted  to  clays,  muck,  or  peaty  soils. 
The  beet  is  able  to  resist  considerably  more  alkali  in  the 
soil  than  most  other  crops  and  is  grown  in  many  slightly 
alkaline  soils  of  the  West.     Neither  soils  that  form  a  hard 
crust  at  the  surface  after  a  rain  nor  shallow  soils  with 
an   impervious    subsoil    are    suitable    for    their    growth. 
The  beet  requires  an  abundance  of  sunshine  during  the 
growing  season,  and  is  therefore  not  adapted  to  localities 
where  much  cloudy  weather  prevails. 

CULTURAL  METHODS 

337.  Preparing  the  land.  —  Since  the  beet  grows  almost 
entirely    underground,   a    deep    seed    bed    is   necessary. 
The  soil  should  be  plowed  to  a  depth  of  8  to  12  inches, 


THE  ROOT  CROPS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS      327 

and  sometimes,  with  the  use  of  a  subsoiler,  it  may  be 
plowed  to  a  depth  of  15  inches.  When  soil  conditions  will 
permit,  fall  plowing  is  recommended.  In  the  Western 
States  beets  frequently  follow  alfalfa,  and  on  account  of 
the  deep  rooting  habits  of  the  latter,  this  practice  is  de- 
sirable. The  preparation  of  the  land  after  plowing  is 
important.  A  firm,  fine,  moist  seed  bed  should  be  secured 
if  possible.  Handling  of  the  soil  so  as  to  conserve  moisture 
is  important.  No  labor  should  be  spared  to  obtain  a  seed 
bed  free  from  weeds,  as  the  slow  growth  of  the  plants  at 
first  gives  the  weeds  an  opportunity  to  flourish  and  hand 
labor  is  then  necessary  to  eradicate  them. 

Fertilizers  and  barnyard  manure  are  frequently  used  on 
beet  lands.  Barnyard  manure  should  be  well  rotted  when 
applied.  High  grade  complete  fertilizers  are  most  fre- 
quently used,  although  on  soils  that  are  deficient  in  only 
one  element  of  plant  food  an  application  of  a  single  element 
may  then  be  advisable. 

338.  Seeding  and  cultivation.  —  Beets  are  usually 
seeded  solid  in  rows  14  to  30  inches  apart.  The  seed  of 
the  beet  is  produced  in  "  balls  "  which  contain  from  1  to  5 
seeds.  It  is  impossible  therefore  to  regulate  the  rate  of 
seeding  to  get  the  desired  number  of  plants.  Deep  plant- 
ing of  the  seed  is  likely  to  cause  a  poor  stand  and  usually 
from  |  to  1J  inches  is  deep  enough  if  the  land  has  been 
well  prepared.  The  seeds  germinate  in  from  5  to  10  days, 
but  the  plants  grow  slowly  at  first.  Since  it  is  impossible 
to  seed  at  the  desired  rate,  the  plants  must  be  thinned. 
This  is  done  by  first  "  blocking  "  with  a  hoe,  which  consists 
of  cutting  out  the  plants  in  the  row,  leaving  small  bunches 
8  or  10  inches  apart.  After  blocking,  further  thinning  is 
necessary,  which  consists  in  removing  all  of  the  plants  but 
one  in  each  bunch.  Both  the  blocking  and  the  further 


328  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

thinning  require  hand  labor,  as  does  also  much  of  the 
cultivation  during  the  early  period  of  growth.  Frequent 
cultivation  in  the  early  growing  season  is  important,  as 
at  this  time  an  abundant  moisture  supply  is  desirable  for 
the  beets. 

339.  Harvesting.  —  The  harvesting  may  be  divided 
into  four  operations,  namely,  lifting,  pulling,  topping, 
and  hauling.  Lifting  consists  of  plowing  near  the  beets 
to  loosen  the  soil  so  that  they  may  easily  be  pulled.  The 


FIG.  120.  —  Many  foreigners,  men,  women,  and  children,  are  employed 
by  growers  of  sugar  beets. 

pulling  is  done  by  hand,  as  is  also  the  topping,  which 
consists  of  removing  the  tops  at  the  point  of  the  lowest 
leaf  scar  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  part  of  the  beet  that 
grows  above  the  ground  is  not  desired  by  the  sugar  factory, 
since  it  has  a  low  sugar  content  and  a  high  percentage 
of  minerals,  which  crystallize  the  sugar  during  the  process 
of  manufacture.  After  the  tops  are  removed,  the  beets 
are  then  hauled  to  the  factory,  or  to  the  point  of  shipment 
if  the  factory  is  some  distance  away.  At  the  factory  the 
sugar  is  extracted  and  placed  upon  the  market.  The 
beet  pulp,  that  part  of  the  beet  which  remains  after  the 


THE  BOOT  CROPS  AND   RELATED  PRODUCTS      329 

sugar  is  extracted,  is  used  as  stock  food.  It  contains 
only  about  10  per  cent  of  nutrients,  but  is  very  succulent 
and  is  highly  prized  for  dairy  cows. 

340.  Seed  production.  —  Almost  all  of  the  seed  used 
in  this  country  is  imported,  less  than  3  per  cent  being 
homegrown.     The  beet  is  a  biennial,  producing  seed  the 
second  year.     In  countries  of  mild  winters,  it  lives  through 
the  winter  season,  but  where  the  winters  are  cold  it  is 
necessary  to  store  them  in  pits  or  cellars  and  to  reset 
them  the  following  spring.     The  great  increase  of  the  sugar 
content  of  the  beet  has  been  due  to  the  method  of  selecting 
the  seed  beets.     Usually  a  sample  is  taken  of  the  beet 
at  the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth  to  determine  the 
sugar  content,  and  only  those  beets  of  high  sugar  content 
are  used  for  seed  production.     From  1200  to  1500  pounds 
of  seed  may  be  secured  from  an  acre  of  beets. 

MANGEL-WURZELS 

341.  Description.  —  Mangel- wurzels      are      sometimes 
called  cow  beets,  field  beets,  or  mangels.     There  are  several 
varieties  of  mangels,  differing  in  size,  shape,  and  color. 
The  long  and  intermediate  long  types  require  a  deeper  soil 
than  the  tankard  and  globe  types.     Mangels  grow  best 
on  deep,  well-drained,  fertile  soil.     Clay  soils,  because  of 
their  compact  nature,  are  not  well  adapted  to  the  growing 
of  them.     Mangels  require  a  moist  soil,  but  they  do  not 
thrive  in  wet  soils,  and  they  grow  best  where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  sunshine  during  the  growing  season.     In 
the  United  States  they  are  grown  in  the  North  Atlantic 
States,  where  cereals  are  not  profitable,  and  in  a  small  way 
in  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin. 

342.  Uses.  —  They  are  used  almost  entirely  as  stock 
feed,  and  are  fed  largely  to  cattle  and  sheep.     In  prep- 


330  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

aration  for  feeding,  they  are  either  cut  up  into  small  pieces 
with  a  corn  knife,  or  shredded  by  a  machine.  They  are 
usually  fed  in  connection  with  grain  or  concentrates,  and 
are  valuable  as  feeds  because  of  their  succulence  and  their 
laxative  effect.  The  tops  of  the  mangels  which  are  re- 
moved at  harvest  time  are  also  used  as  feed. 

343.  Cultural  methods.  —  The  seed  bed  for  mangels 
must  be  well  prepared  and  free  from  weeds.     It  is  usually 
best  when  possible  to  plow  the  land  deeply  in  the  fall 
and  prepare  the  seed  bed  the  following  spring  by  repeated 
disking  and  harrowing.     The  seed  of  mangels  is  slow  to 
germinate  and  the  young  plants  grow  slowly  at  first, 
giving  weeds,  if  they  are  present,  a  chance  to  become  well 
established   before   the   mangels   are   up.     It   is   almost 
necessary,  therefore,  to  have  the  field  free  from  weeds 
before  the  seeding  is  done.     The  seed  of  mangels,  like 
those  of  sugar  beets,  is  produced  in  a  "  ball  "  which  con- 
tains from  1  to  5  seeds.     It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to 
regulate  the  rate  of  seeding  to  get  the  desired  distribu- 
tion of  plants.     This  must  be  done  by  thinning  when  the 
plants  are  about  2  inches  high.     The  seed  is  drilled  in, 
either  with  a  beet  seed  drill  or  with  a  grain  drill.     The  rows 
should  be  made  28  or  30  inches  apart  to  permit  of  culti- 
vation.    If  a  grain  drill  is  used,  this  can  be  accomplished 
by  using  every  third  drill  hoe,  the  remainder  being  stopped 
up.     From  8  to  12  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  required. 
The  seed  should  be  covered  about  one  inch  deep,  and  the 
seeding  should  be  done  as  soon  in  the  spring  as  the  weather 
will  permit. 

344.  The  cultivation  consists  in  thinning  to  the  desired 
stand,  usually  one  plant  per  foot,  and  further  cultivation 
to  keep  down  the  weeds.     Mangels  should  be  harvested  as 
soon  as  they  cease  growing,  which  is  indicated  by  the  drop- 


THE  ROOT  CROPS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS   331 

ping  off  of  the  outer  leaves,  since  they  are  injured  by  severe 
frosts.  They  may  be  removed  from  the  ground  by  a  beet 
puller  or  pulled  by  hand  after  the  ground  has  been  loosened 
by  the  plowing  of  a  furrow  close  beside  the  row.  The 
tops  are  removed  by  twisting  or  cutting  them  off  with  a 
knife.  Mangels  should  be  stored  soon  after  harvesting  in  a 
place  where  they  will  not  freeze,  a  root  cellar  usually  being 
employed  for  this  purpose.  Twenty  tons  per  acre  is 
probably  an  average  yield,  but  sometimes  as  many  as  30 
tons  are  secured. 


TURNIPS  AND   RUTABAGAS 

346.  Description.  —  The  turnip,  Brassica  rapa,  and  the 
rutabaga,  Brassica  campestris,  are  closely  related  plants,  similar 
enough  in  their  habits  of  growth  and  cultural  requirements  to  be 
considered  together.  Like  the  mangel,  the  useful  part  of  the 
plant  is  the  thickened  stem  and  root.  Different  varieties  vary  in 
color,  form,  and  size.  Rutabagas  are  larger  than  turnips  and 
yield  much  more  per  acre.  The  most  common  varieties  of 
Rutabagas  are  the  Green  Top  and  the  Purple  Top,  and  of  the 
turnip,  the  Cow-horn,  Purple  Top,  and  White  Globe  are  the 
most  commonly  grown.  The  flesh  of  the  turnip  is  .usually  white, 
and  that  of  the  rutabaga  is  yellow.  The  turnip,  being  smaller, 
matures  more  quickly  than  the  rutabaga. 

346.  Cultural  methods.  —  Turnips  and  rutabagas  do  not 
require  as  long  a  growing  season  nor  as  much  sunshine  as  beets, 
and  are  usually  grown  in  cool,  damp  climates.  They  grow  well 
on  sandy  soils,  and,  like  mangels,  do  not  do  well  on  stiff  clays. 
The  preparation  of  the  seed  is  similar  to  that  described  for  man- 
gels. Rutabagas  should  be  seeded  about  the  same  time  as  man- 
gels, using  from  4  to  6  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  Turnips  are 
usually  sown  in  midsummer,  sometimes  being  preceded  by  an- 
other crop.  Two  or  three  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre. 
Turnips  are  sometimes  sown  broadcast  and  not  cultivated  during 
the  growing  season.  When  seeded  broadcast,  about  4  pounds 
of  seed  are  required  per  acre. 


332  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

347.  Uses.  —  Turnips  are  grown  in  a  small  way  on  many 
farms  for  household  use.     In  some  sections  of  the  country,  they 
are  grown  in  larger  areas  and  are  used  for  feeding  live  stock. 
Rutabagas  are  not  as  commonly  grown  as  turnips  in  the  United 
States,  but  are  more  common  in  Canada.     Both  turnips  and 
rutabagas  are  quite  extensively  grown  in  England,  where  they 
are  used  as  stock  feed.     Since  turnips  do  not  keep  as  long  as 
rutabagas,  they  are  usually  fed  first  when  both  crops  are  grown. 
Sometimes  these  crops  are  not  pulled  and  stored,  but  are  har- 
vested by  hogs  which  are  turned  into   the  field.     The  yield 
secured  from  turnips  varies  from  5  to  10  tons  per  acre,  and  from 
rutabagas,  from  15  to  25  tons  per  acre. 

THE    CARROT 

348.  The  carrot,  Daucus  carota,  may  be  distinguished  when 
growing  in  the  field  from  the  root  crops  previously  described  by 
its  numerous,  finely  divided  leaves.     The  varieties  vary  in  size, 
shape,  and  color  of  the  roots,   the  common  colors  being  red, 
orange,  white,  and  yellow.     Some  varieties  are  decidedly  taper- 
ing, while  others  are  cylindrical  for  a  considerable  part  of  their 
length.     Carrots  are  adapted  to  a  wider  range  of  soils  and  climate 
than  beets  or  rutabagas.     They  grow  best  on  a  deep,  sandy  loam, 
but  are  quite  productive  on  other  types  of  soil.     The  cultural 
methods  are  in  most  particulars  similar  to  those  described  for 
mangels.     The  seed  is  usually  of  low  vitality  and  requires  a 
longer  time  to  germinate,  and  the  younger  plants  grow   more 
slowly  than  the  mangels  or  turnips.     It  is  particularly  important, 
therefore,  that  the  field  be  free  from  weeds  before  the  seeds  are 
sown.     Six  or  seven  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre,  and 
the  seeding  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  soil  warms  up  in  the 
spring. 

Carrots  yield  from  20  to  30  tons  per  acre.  The  roots  are 
handled  and  stored  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  mangels. 
The  top  of  the  carrot  is  of  special  value,  having  higher  feeding 
value  and  yielding  more  abundantly  than  the  tops  of  other  root 
crops.  Carrots  are  fed  to  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  being  especially 
prized  for  horses. 


THE  BOOT  CROPS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS     333 


RAPE 

Rape  is  a  native  of  northern  Europe,  where  it  has  been 
grown  for  many  years  as  a  forage  crop.  It  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  several  years  ago,  where  it  has  been 
grown  in  a  small  way  in  several  localities.  It  has  only 
been  within  the  past  few  years  that  its  great  usefulness 
has  become  appreciated,  and  it  has,  during  this  time, 
rapidly  gained  in  popular  favor  and  extended  culture. 

349.  Description.  —  Rape,    Brassica  rapus,   is   closely 
related  to  both  cabbage  and  rutabaga,  and  is  grown  for 
the  stem  and  leaves.     The  leaves  of  rape  are  similar  in 
appearance  to  those  of  rutabaga,  while  the  root  system 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  cabbage.     There  are  two  types 
of  rape,  namely,  annual  and  biennial.     The  annual  or 
summer  type  is  grown  for  the  seed  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent,  but  is  not  grown  in  the  United  States.     The 
biennial  type  is   a  larger,  ranker   growing  plant  and  is 
grown  for  forage.     The  biennial  type  produces  seed  only  in 
mild  climates  where  the  plant  lives  through  the  winter. 
A  small  amount  of  seed  is  produced  in  the  Pacific  Coast 
States,  but  most  of  the  seed  used  in  this  country  is  im- 
ported from  England  and  the  Continent.     When  grown 
for  seed,  the  biennial  type  produces  as  much  as  1000 
pounds  per  acre.     The  Dwarf  Essex  is  the  best  known  and 
the  most  important  variety  of  the  biennial  or  winter  rape. 

350.  Distribution    and    adaptation.  —  Rape   is   a   cool 
weather  plant  and  is  especially  well  adapted  to  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  where  it  is  grown 
most    extensively.     Rape    grows    best    in    moist,    fertile 
soils.     It  is  especially  adapted  to  soils  rich  in  organic 
matter,  and  for  this  reason  does  not  do  well  on  stiff  clays 
or  heavy  soils.     It  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  is  able  to  utilize  a 


334 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


large  amount  of  plant  food  not  available  to  many  other 
crops.  The  roots  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil  and  draw 
heavily  upon  the  soil  water,  which  the  plant  needs  in 
large  amounts. 

351.  Uses.  —  In  this  country;  rape  is  used  almost  ex- 
clusively as  a  pasture  crop.i  Sometimes,  however,  it  is 
used  as  a  soiling  crop.  Rarely,  if  ever,  is  it  cut  and  dried 
for  hay.  As  a  pasture  crop,  it  is  especially  valuable  be- 
cause of  the  large  yield  of  forage  and  short  season  of 


FIG.  121.  —  Pasturing  hogs  on  rape. 

growth.  It  furnishes  forage  when  other  pastures  are  not 
usually  productive,  and  is  high  in  feeding  value  and  succu- 
lence. The  yield  varies  from  10  to  25  tons  per  acre. 
Rape  is  especially  valuable  as  a  pasture  for  sheep  and  hogs. 
Cattle  do  well  on  it,  too,  but  it  is  objectionable  for  milch 
cows  because  it  imparts  a  flavor  to  the  milk.  It  is  said 
that  this  objection  may  be  overcome  by  feeding  the  cows 
after  milking.  Sheep  and  cattle  when  pastured  on  it  are 
subject  to  bloating  until  they  become  accustomed  to  it. 
It  is  advisable  to  allow  both  cattle  and  sheep  the  run  of 


THE  ROOT  CROPS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS  335 

a  grass  pasture  in  connection  with  the  rape.  This  prac- 
tice, in  a  large  measure,  prevents  bloating  and  also  provides 
a  variety  of  forage.  Animals  usually  do  not  relish  rape 
at  first,  and  it  requires  some  time  for  them  to  acquire  a 
taste  for  it.  To  prevent  overeating,  or  bloating,  after 
the  animals  acquire  a  taste  for  it,  it  is  best  to  allow  them 
to  have  access  to  the  rape  pasture  only  during  short 
periods  at  first,  gradually  extending  the  time  as  they 
become  accustomed  to  it,  until  they  are  on  full  time. 
The  largest  yields  are  obtained  and  much  waste  is  pre- 
vented if  the  animals  are  not  given  the  run  of  the  entire 
field,  but  confined  to  a  limited  area  by  means  of  movable 
fences  or  hurdles.  The  area  may  be  extended  as  necessary 
by  moving  the  fences. 

352.  Cultural  methods.  —  Rape  may  be  seeded  alone 
or  in  combination  with  other  crops.  When  seeded  alone, 
the  soil  should  be  well  worked  down  into  a  fine  seed  bed. 
The  time  of  seeding  will  depend  upon  the  time  that  the 
pasture  is  desired.  Rape  is  a  rapid  grower  and  is  usually 
ready  to  pasture  in  from  8  to  12  weeks  from  the  time  of 
seeding.  For  early  pasture,  the  seeding  may  be  done  as 
soon  as  the  danger  of  frost  is  over.  If  pasture  is  desired 
throughout  the  season,  it  may  be  supplied  by  successive 
seedings  a  few  weeks  apart.  When  seeded  alone,  rape 
may  be  either  broadcast  or  drilled  in  rows.  When  broad- 
cast, 4  or  5  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  required,  and  when 
drilled  in  rows  28  to  30  inches  apart,  2  or  3  pounds  per  acre 
are  required.  Usually  it  is  best  to  seed  in  rows.  This 
method  permits  of  cultivation  during  early  growth,  and 
also  less  waste  occurs  during  pasturing,  since  the  animals 
will  follow  the  rows  and  are  not  likely  to  tramp  down  as 
many  plants  as  when  feeding  on  broadcast  fields.  As 
much,  if  not  a  little  more,  forage  can  be  produced  in  rows 


336  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

than  by  broadcasting.  When  grown  for  soiling,  it  is 
always  desirable  to  seed  in  rows,  since  cutting  and  har- 
vesting are  more  easily  accomplished. 

353.  Rape  may  follow  small  grains,  as  a  catch  crop. 
After  the  wheat,  barley,  rye,  or  oats  has  been  removed, 
the  field  may  be  disked  and  seeded  to  rape.  Seeded  in 
this  way,  with  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate, a  goodly  amount  of  late  pasture  may  be  se- 
cured. In  sections  where  there  is  plenty  of  rainfall, 
rape  may  be  seeded  in  the  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last 
cultivation,  with  good  results.  Rape  may  be  seeded  in  the 
spring  with  the  small  grains,  and  pastured  after  they  are 
harvested.  When  seeded  with  oats,  it  is  usually  desirable 
to  broadcast  the  rape  after  the  oat  plants  are  an  inch  or 
two  in  height,  since  if  seeded  with  the  oats  the  rape  will 
make  enough  growth  to  be  troublesome  during  harvesting. 
After  the  oats  are  removed,  the  rape  will  grow  rapidly, 
and  may  be  pastured  in  a  few  weeks  from  the  time  of 
cutting  the  oats.  Rape  may  be  seeded  with  spring  wheat 
in  the  same  manner,  Or  it  may  be  sown  broadcast  on  winter 
wheat  after  the  wheat  has  started  to  grow  in  the  spring. 
A  light  harrow  may  be  used  to  cover  the  seed  when  it 
is  sown  with  oats  or  wheat. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  FIBER  CROPS 

COTTON 

HERODOTUS,  the  Greek  historian  who  lived  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  and  was  a  noted  traveler  in  his  day, 
wrote  of  "  tree  wool  "  that  was  grown  in  India  and  used 
there  for  clothing.  The  tree  wool  of  India,  described  by  this 
historian,  is  none  other  than  cotton  which  had  probably 
been  grown  there  for  many  years  before  his  visit.  From 
India  it  was  introduced  into  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  north- 
ern Africa.  It  is  said  that  Alexander  the  Great  brought  it 
from  India  and  introduced  it  into  southern  Europe. 
Columbus  found  cotton  growing  in  the  West  Indies ;  and 
when  Cortez  with  his  band  invaded  what  is  now  Mexico, 
they  found  the  natives  there  wearing  clothes  made  from 
it.  Records  of  the  early  explorers  who  visited  Central 
America  and  Brazil  and  Peru  in  South  America  show  that 
here,  too,  the  cotton  plant  was  known.  It  is  probable 
that  cotton  is  a  native  of  the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres, 
and  has  for  centuries  been  cultivated  to  some  extent  and 
used  by  the  people  of  these  countries  for  clothing.  India 
for  many  centuries  was  the  most  important  cotton-growing 
country,  but  within  the  last  one  hundred  years  has  given 
way  to  the  United  States.  Cotton  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  grown  by  the  Indians  that  occupied  the  section  of 
the  country  now  renowned  for  its  extensive  cotton  fields. 
z  337 


338 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


It  was  cultivated  by  the  colonists  at  as  early  a  date  as 
1764,  when  eight  bales  of  it  were  exported  to  Liverpool. 
The  crop,  however,  was  not  an  important  one  in  this 
country  until  after  the  Revolutionary  War.  The  history 
of  cotton  cannot  well  be  told  without  recording  the  name 
of  Eli  Whitney,  who  in  1792  invented  the  cotton  gin. 
Whitney's  invention  marked  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
the  cotton  crop.  Previous  to  this  the  yield  of  cotton  was 

small,  and  its  use  was 
limited  largely  because 
it  was  necessary  to 
prepare  it  by  hand  for 
weaving.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  gin  and  its 
improvement  in  later 
years  made  possible 
the  great  cotton  fields 
of  to-day,  which  sup- 
ply the  large  portion 
of  the  civilized  people 
of  the  world  with 
cheap  and  serviceable 
clothing. 

354.  Description.  — 
The  cotton  plant  be- 
longs to  the  Malvaceae  or  Mallow  Family,  which  includes 
the  many  species  of  mallow  and  also  the  hollyhock  and  the 
Rose  of  Sharon,  a  highly  prized  shrub  for  the  beautifying 
of  landscapes.  The  cotton  plant  varies  greatly  in  form 
and  in  its  manner  of  growth,  ranging  in  height  from  low 
growing  plants  to  trees  20  feet  high.  The  larger  tree- 
like plants,  while  they  produce  fiber,  are  grown  only  as  a 
curiosity.  The  cotton  grown  for  the  fiber  in  the  southern 


FIG.  122.  — A  cotton  plant. 


THE  FIBER   CROPS  339 

part  of  the  United  States  is  a  shrub-like  plant,  varying  in 
height  from  2  to  6  feet,  the  average  under  field  conditions 
being  probably  3J  feet.  Cotton  is  a  perennial  in  the 
tropics,  but  in  this  country  it  is  an  annual.  It  has  a 
well-developed  tap  root  which  penetrates  three  feet  or 
more  into  the  soil,  depending  upon  its  nature.  The 
lateral  or  feeding  branches  are  given  off  within  3  or  4 
inches  of  the  surface  and  do  not  penetrate  deeply;  the 
plant  is  therefore  shallow  rooted  when  compared  with 
corn  or  wheat.  Sometimes  if  the  soil  is  fully  drained  and 
the  watertable  is  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  tap 
root  may  grow  down  to  a  point  near  the  watertable  and 
then  grow  horizontally.  In  poor  soils  the  tap  root  fre- 
quently is  small  and  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  the 
small  feeding  roots. 

355.  The  stem  and  leaves.  —  The  stem  is  erect,  with 
branches  coming  out  from  the  several  nodes  between  the 
leaf  and  the  stem.  The  branches  from  the  nodes  near  the 
bottom  of  the  plant  are  long,  but  each  succeeding  branch 
is  usually  shorter,  so  that  those  near  the  top  are  quite 
short,  giving  the  plant  a  somewhat  conical  shape.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  branches,  namely,  the  vegetative,  those 
which  do  not  produce  bolls  or  fruit,  and  the  fruiting 
branches.  Usually  two  branches  grow  from  each  node 
on  the  main  stem,  although  quite  frequently  one  of  them 
does  not  develop.  The  fruiting  branches  have  few  leaves, 
while  the  vegetative  branches  bear  them  in  considerable 
numbers.  The  stem  and  branches  are  solid  and  woody 
and  vary  with  the  different  varieties  in  their  manner  of 
growth.  The  length  and  character  of  the  branches  are 
factors  of  considerable  importance  in  the  identification 
of  varieties.  The  leaves  are  arranged  alternately  and 
vary  in  size  and  shape  even  on  the  same  plant.  Those 


340  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

near  the  base  of  the  plant  are  heart-shaped,  while  the  ones 
near  the  top  are  deeply  lobed ;  usually  there  are  three 
lobes,  although  five  are  quite  common. 

356.  The  boll  and  fiber.  —  The  flowers  are  large  and 
conspicuous  and  are  attached  to  the  fruiting  stems  by 
short  branches.  The  flowers  have  five  large  petals  and 
five  small  sepals.  The  flowers  open  in  the  early  morning 
and  are  at  first  white  or  creamy  yellow  in  color,  taking 
on  a  reddish  tinge  the  second  day  and  gradually  becoming 
darker  until  they  wither  and  the  petals  fall  the  third  or 
fourth  day,  leaving  the  enlarged  base  of  the  pistil,  which 
is  really  the  seed  pod,  enveloped  in  the  leafy  bracts.  The 
seed  pod  or  boll  develops  as  the  plant  matures,  and  finally 
the  bracts  fold  backwards  and  the  several  compartments 
of  the  boll  separate,  exposing  at  first  a  mass  of  fiber  which 
retains  the  shape  of  the  compartment  in  which  it  was  com- 
pressed, but  in  a  short  time  dries  and  expands  into  a  large, 
white,  fluffy  mass.  This  white  mass  is  made  up  of  many 
tiny  fibers  which,  when  separated  from  the  seed,  become  the 
cotton  of  commerce.  Each  fiber  is  in  reality  a  single 
elongated  tube-like  cell  which  has  collapsed  and  become 
twisted  so  that  it  resembles  a  long  corkscrew.  The  twists 
in  the  fibers  are  of '  great  importance  because  they  assist 
in  holding  the  fibers  together,  which  makes  possible  the 
spinning  of  them  into  long,  stout  threads.  The  number 
of  twists  in  the  fiber  varies  with  the  maturity,  the  immature 
fibers  having  only  a  few,  while  the  number  increases  with 
the  ripening  of  the  plant,  until,  when  fully  mature,  as 
many  as  500  per  inch  have  been  found.  The  value  of 
the  fiber  is  influenced  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the 
number  of  twists  it  contains,  since  those  with  few  twists 
do  not  make  a  strong  thread,  and  can  be  used  only  in 
the  making  of  cheap  fabrics.  The  length  of  the  fiber 


THE  FIBER   CROPS  341 

varies  with  the  variety  and  the  environment  in  which  the 
plant  was  grown,  but  the  average  length  of  the  upland 
fiber  is  about  1.2  inches.  The  value  of  the  cotton  crop  is 
determined  by  the  length,  strength,  fineness,  and  maturity 
of  the  fiber.  The  number  of  seeds  in  a  boll  varies  from  30 
to  50.  In  the  upland  cotton  they  are  covered  with  a  white 
or  greenish  fuzz  in  addition  to  the  longer  fibers  which 
surround  them  in  the  boll.  The  percentage  of  seed  to 
lint  or  fiber  varies  considerably,  but  the  average  is  approxi- 
mately 2  to  3  pounds  of  seed  to  one  pound  of  lint.  The 
legal  weight  per  bushel  of  the  cotton  seed  is  32  pounds. 

KINDS    OF    COTTON 

357.  American  upland  cotton,  Gossypium  hirsutum.  — 
This  type  of  cotton  is  by  far  the  most  important  in  the 
United    States    and    when    a    cotton    planter  refers  to 
"  cotton  "  he  has  in  mind  the  upland  type.     This  type  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  the  short  fiber  varieties 
and  the  long  fiber  varieties.     The  important  difference 
between  them  is  the  length  of  the  fiber,  that  of  the  short 
fiber  varying  from  }  to  1J  inches  and  the  long  fiber  from 
1J  to  If  inches  in  length.     Usually  the  long  fiber  varieties 
do  not  yield  as  much  lint  as  the  short  fiber  varieties,  but 
the  value  per  pound  is  greater. 

358.  Sea  island   cotton,  Gossypium  barbadense.  —  This 
species  of  cotton  differs  from  the  upland  cotton  chiefly 
in  the  larger  growth  of  the  plant,  more  deeply  lobed  leaves, 
smaller  and  more  pointed  bolls,  and  black  seeds  covered 
with  fuzz.     The  lint  is  considerably  longer  and  is  more 
valuable,  being  used  in  the  making  of  the  finest  cotton 
fabrics.     The  yield  per  acre  is  less  than  the  upland  varieties 
and  it  is  more  difficult  to  pick  and  gin,  but  the  difference 
in  the  price  per  pound  makes  it  a  more  profitable  crop 


342  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

where  it  can  be  grown.  Sea  island  cotton  requires  an 
even,  moist  climate  where  frost  is  scarcely  known.  It  is 
grown  in  the  coast  lands  and  warm,  moist  parts  of  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  in  the  islands  off  these 
coasts. 

359.  Other  varieties.  —  Besides  these  two  important 
American  grown  varieties,  there  are  the  Egyptian  cotton, 
which  is  a  variety  of  the  sea  island  type,  and  India  cotton, 
which  is  a  distinct  species,  both  of  which  are  of  considerable 
importance  in  their  respective  countries.     Neither  of  them 
is  grown  to  any  extent  in  the  United  States. 

MARKETING    AND    USES 

360.  Preparation  and  uses  of  the  fiber.  —  After   the 
seed  cotton  is  harvested,  it  is  carried  to  the  cotton  gin. 
This  machine  separates  the  seed  from  the  lint,  which  comes 
out  in  great  sheets  of  billowy  whiteness,  and  is  then  com- 
pressed by  powerful  hydraulic  presses  into  bales  weighing 
500  pounds  each,  24  pounds  of  this  weight  being  the 
wrapping  cloth  and  bands  around  the  bale.     This  is  the 
form  in  which  the  producer  sells  his  cotton  to  the  local 
buyer,  from  whose  hands  it  is  sent  to  the  mills  either  in 
this  country  or  abroad.     Before  the  cotton  is  ready  to  be 
spun  into  yarn,  however,  it  must  first  go  through  the 
processes  of  cleaning,  carding,  and  drawing.     The  cotton 
gin  has  not  been  able  to~remove  all  the  dirt  and  leaves  with 
which  the  cotton  has  come  in  contact  in  picking,  and  some- 
times it  leaves  a  few  seeds  in,  so  after  the  bale  is  opened  the 
cotton  is  fed  between  several  sets  of  one-edged  knives, 
which  free  the  lint  of  a  great  deal  of  dirt  but  without  in- 
juring   the    fiber.     The    carding    machine    removes    still 
more  of  the  dirt  and  lays  the  fibers  in  a  parallel  position. 
The  cotton  is  now  in  the  form  of  a  loose  rope  or  sliver  about 


THE  FIBER   CROPS  343 

3  inches  in  diameter.  Several  slivers  are  then  run  to- 
gether and  the  resulting  rope  is  drawn  out  until  it  is  about 
|  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  in  this  form  it  is  called 
"  roving."  The  roving,  which  is  then  wound  on  bobbins, 
goes  to  the  spinning  frame,  there  to  be  drawn  out  by 
the  spindles  into  threads  varying  in  fineness  from  the 
coarse  denim  or  ticking  warp  to  yarn  so  fine  that  it  looks 
as  though  it  would  snap  at  the  slightest  touch.  We 
need  only  to  take  a  trip  through  one  of  our  present  day 
dry  goods  shops  to  become  acquainted  with  the  almost  un- 
limited variety  of  different  materials  that  can  be  woven 
from  cotton.  From  the  coarse  unbleached  muslin  at 
6  cents  a  yard  to  the  fine  and  dainty  batiste  or  lawn  at  a 
dollar  a  yard  is  a  wide  step  in  quality  and  price.  To 
fill  in  the  gap  there  are  hosts  of  ginghams,  fine  and  coarse 
madras,  dimity,  and  other  materials  in  various  designs, 
colors,  and  prices.  The  difference  in  the  original  fibers, 
the  difference  in  the  preparation  of  the  fiber  and  in  the 
spinning,  weaving,  and  finishing,  gives  us  a  range  of  cotton 
fabric  to  fill  almost  any  textile  need. 

361.  Uses  of  the  seed.  —  Until  recently  the  fiber  was 
considered  the  only  marketable  part  of  the  cotton  crop. 
The  seed  was  used  for  planting  and  the  surplus  was 
spread  on  the  soil  for  fertilizer.  Within  the  past  few 
years,  however,  cotton  seed  has  attained  a  considerable 
value  on  the  market,  and  now  the  cotton  grower  has 
the  market  value  of  the  seed  to  add  to  that  of  the 
fiber  in  determining  the  profit  of  his  crop.  From  enough 
seed  cotton  to  make  a  bale  of  fiber,  about  1000  pounds 
or  one-half  ton  of  seed  is  separated  by  the  gin.  The 
seed  thus  separated  is  usually  sold  by  the  grower  to  the 
cotton  oil  mills,  where  the  cottonseed  oil  is  extracted. 
Before  the  oil  is  extracted,  however,  the  seed  is  reginned, 


344  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

a  process  which  removes  from  it  the  fine  fuzz  or  linter, 
which  is  used  in  the  making  of  cotton  batting,  carpets,  rope, 
or  twine.  About  35  or  40  pounds  of  linter  is  removed  from 
a  ton  of  seed.  The  hull  is  then  removed  from  the  seed  and 
the  inside,  or  "  meat,"  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature  for 
a  short  time  to  melt  the  oil,  and  it  is  then  subjected  to 
powerful  hydraulic  or  steam  pressure  which  forces  out 
the  oil  and  compresses  the  meat  into  a  firm  cake.  About 
40  gallons  of  crude  oil  may  be  removed  from  a  ton  of  seed. 
The  oil  is  refined  into  various  grades  and  placed  directly 
upon  the  market  or  sold  to  manufacturers.  The  best 
grades  of  oil  are  used  as  a  substitute  or  adulterant  for 
olive  oil  or  salad  oil  for  culinary  purposes.  It  is  also 
used  in  the  making  of  cottolene,  a  substitute  for  lard, 
and  butterine,  a  substitute  for  butter.  Cotton  oil  prod- 
ucts are  wholesome  and  valuable  for  culinary  purposes, 
although  there  now  exists  some  prejudice  against  their 
use.  The  lower  grades  of  cottonseed  oil  are  used  in  the 
making  of  soap. 

362.  The  oil  cake,  which  remains  after  the  extraction 
of  the  oil,  is  highly  prized  as  a  feed  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
It  contains  about  35  per  cent  of  protein  and  is  useful  to 
supply  this  principle  in  the  making  up  of  rations  for  live 
stock.  Sometimes  the  seed  hulls,  which  were  removed 
before  the  oil  is  extracted,  are  ground  up  with  the  meal 
cake  and  together  they  are  placed  on  the  market  as  feeding 
stuff.  The  hulls  are  also  used  alone  as  feed  or  fertilizer, 
for  which  purposes  they  are  not  very  valuable,  and  also  in 
the  making  of  paper.  The  oil  is  the  principal  and  most 
valuable  product  of  the  seed.  The  hull,  linter,  and  meal 
are  by-products  derived  from  the  seed  in  the  extraction 
of  the  oil,  but  are  of  considerable  value  and  add  greatly 
to  the  net  profit  derived  from  the  crop. 


THE  FIBER   CROPS 


345 


PRODUCTION  AND  ADAPTATION 

363.  The  world's  production.  —  The  world's  production 
of  cotton  for  the  five  years  1907-1911  shows  an  average 
annual  production  of  approximately  20  million  bales,  or 
about  9500  million  pounds.  Of  this  amount  the  United 
States  produces  approximately  12  million  bales,  India 
3  million,  and  Egypt  about  1300  thousand  bales.  Much 
smaller  amounts  are  produced  in  South  America,  princi- 

PRODUCTION  OF  COTTON 


1850-  1910 

MILLIONS     OF      BALES 
£3456789         10         II 


1910 


FIG.  123. 

pally  in  Brazil  and  Peru,  Mexico,  Turkey,  and  China.  The 
United  States  is,  therefore,  the  leading  producer  of  cotton, 
not  only  producing  more  than  any  other  country,  but  more 
than  all  other  countries  taken  together.  The  mills  which 
furnish  the  world  with  cotton  fabrics  draw  their  supply 
largely  from  the  United  States  and  smaller  amounts  from 
India,  Egypt,  and  other  countries.  The  United  States, 
therefore,  to  a  considerable  extent,  controls  the  cotton 
industries  of  the  world.  Much  of  our  production  is  ex- 
ported to  supply  the  foreign  mills.  For  the  five  years  1907 
-1911  almost  two-thirds  of  the  cotton  produced  in  this 
country  was  exported,  much  of  it  going  to  England  where 


346  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

the  making  of  cotton  cloth  is  one  of  the  important  indus- 
tries. 

364.  Production  in  the  United  States.  —  In  the  United 
States  cotton  production  is  confined  to  the  Southern  and 
Gulf  States  of  southeastern  United  States,  which  is  re- 
ferred to  as  the  "  cotton  belt."     In  this  section  of  the  coun- 
try cotton  is  the  principal  money  crop  and  is  closely 
associated  with  the  prosperity  of  the  farmers  and  the 
success  of  all  kinds  of  business.     Growing  from  a  small 
industry  at  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War  in  the 
Carolinas  and  Georgia,  its  culture  has  greatly  spread  with 
increasing  acreage  into  the  states  to  the  west  of  the  original 
cotton   region,    until   now   the   production   of   cotton   is 
second  in  value  only  to  corn  and  contributes  mightily 
to  the  nation's  wealth. 

Texas  devotes  nearly  40  per  cent  of  her  improved  land 
area  to  cotton,  and  produces  more  than  one-fourth  of 
the  cotton  of  the  country  and  more  than  15  per  cent  of 
the  world's  crop.  Georgia,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  and 
South  Carolina  each  devote  over  35  per  cent  of  their 
improved  lands  to  cotton,  and  taken  together,  produce 
almost  one-half  of  the  cotton  of  the  country.  Arkansas, 
Oklahoma,  North  Carolina,  and  Louisiana  each  devote 
considerable  area  to  this  crop,  and  when  their  production 
is  added  to  that  of  the  above  mentioned  states,  together 
these  nine  states  produce  over  95  per  cent  of  the  cotton  crop 
of  the  United  States  and  over  one-half  of  the  cotton  crop 
of  the  entire  world.  The  ten-year  average  yield  of  cotton 
per  acre  varies  from  166  pounds  in  Texas  to  225  pounds 
in  North  Carolina,  and  the  average  yield  per  acre  for  all 
of  the  states  for  the  same  period  is  approximately  185 
pounds. 

365.  Adaptation.  —  Profitable     cotton     production     is 


THE  FIBER   CEOPS  347 

limited  by  temperature,  rainfall,  and  the  character  of  the 
soil.  Cotton  is  extremely  sensitive  to  temperature, 
requiring  for  its  best  growth  a  long,  hot  growing  season 
without  marked  changes  in  the  temperature.  The 
length  of  the  growing  season  for  cotton  from  the  time  it  is 
planted  until  the  crop  is  harvested  is  approximately  6  to 
7  months,  during  which  time,  for  most  favorable  growth, 
the  mean  daily  temperature  should  increase  until  the 
vegetative  growth  is  made,  after  which  time  it  should 
decrease,  which  is  favorable  to  the  production  of  the  fruit. 
Cotton  cannot  be  profitably  grown  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States  because  of  the  short  growing  season 
and  frequent  changes  of  temperature.  Cotton  for  its 
best  growth  requires  frequent  rains  during  the  period  of 
vegetative  growth,  and  little  or  none  during  the  fruiting 
and  harvesting  season,  although  if  too  much  rain  falls 
during  the  period  of  early  growth,  the  plants  quite  fre- 
quently grow  large  and  rank  without  a  corresponding 
growth  of  fiber  and  seed. 

366.  Probably  no  important  crop  can  be  grown  with 
favorable  results  on  such  a  large  variety  of  soils.  In 
the  cotton  belt  it  is  grown  on  sandy  clay,  sandy  loam, 
limestone,  and  black  alluvial  soils,  and  with  good  cultural 
methods  profitable  crops  may  be  secured  on  any  of  them. 
It  grows  best,  however,  on  a  clay  or  sandy  loam  soil, 
rich  bottom  lands  often  producing  an  excess  of  stalk,  while 
sandy  types  are  often  too  greatly  lacking  in  fertility  for 
the  production  of  a  good  crop.  Sandy  and  other  types 
of  poor  soils  may  be  made  by  proper  fertilization  to  yield  a 
very  profitable  crop.  So  completely  has  the  growing 
of  the  cotton  absorbed  the  attention  of  the  grower  that 
little  else  has  been  grown.  Within  recent  years,  how- 
ever, injury  to  the  soil  resulting  from  continuous  cropping 


348  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

has  been  made  plain  by  lower  yields  and  depleted  soils. 
Rotations  are  now  being  practiced  more  generally,  the 
growing  of  live  stock  is  becoming  more  important,  and  the 
use  of  barnyard  manure  is  increasing,  all  of  which  will  in 
time  show  a  marked  influence  upon  the  yields  obtained. 
Commercial  fertilizers  are  more  commonly  used  in  the 
South  than  in  any  other  section  of  the  country.  They 
have  made  possible  the  growing  of  profitable  crops  of 
cotton  on  naturally  poor  soils,  and  have  been  used  with 
success  on  almost  all  types  of  soil,  resulting  in  larger  yields 
of  cotton.  On  soils  depleted  of  humus  and  low  in  nitrogen, 
fertilizers  having  a  high  percentage  of  nitrogen  give  the 
best  results.  Both  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are 
applied  with  profit  on  most  soils,  especially  when  used  in 
connection  with  barnyard  manure. 

METHODS   OF    CULTURE 

367.  Preparing  the  land.  —  The  time  of  plowing  the 
land  for  cotton  depends  largely  upon  the  system  of  crop 
rotation  that  is  in  practice.  In  many  cases,  cotton  follows 
cotton,  which  means  that  the  preparation  of  the  land  for 
the  next  year's  crop  consists  first  of  disposing  of  the  stalks 
of  the  preceding  crop.  This  is  usually  done  in  one  of 
two  ways  :  either  they  are  raked  down  and  burned  or  they 
are  cut  up  with  the  stalk  cutter  and  plowed  under. 
The  latter  method  is  to  be  recommended,  since  to  burn 
them  is  to  rob  the  soil  of  humus.  Sometimes  a  catch 
crop  of  vetch  or  bur  clover  is  seeded  in  the  fall  and  is 
plowed  under  early  in  the  spring.  When  a  rotation  of 
crops  is  practiced,  the  time  of  plowing  will  depend  upon 
the  preceding  crop  and  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Fall, 
winter,  or  spring  plowing  may  be  practiced,  and,  in  a 
general  way,  the  same  general  principles  must  be  con- 


THE  FIBER   CROPS  349 

sidered  that  were  discussed  in  the  preparation  of  land  for 
corn.  Fall  plowing  when  it  can  be  practiced  is  considered 
by  many  growers  to  be  the  best  practice,  especially  when 
stalks  from  the  preceding  crop  are  to  be  plowed  under.  A 
common  method  of  plowing  for  cotton  is  that  of  "  bedding  " 
the  field,  which  is  done  by  throwing  together  several  fur- 
rows, making  narrow  beds  two  or  three  feet  wide,  with  a 
narrow  strip  of  unplowed  land  between  the  beds.  This 
method  is  in  common  practice  where  the  land  is  poorly 
drained  and  the  furrows  at  either  side  of  the  bed  serve  to 
carry  off  the  surplus  of  water.  Deep  plowing,  when  it  can 
be  practiced,  is  to  be  recommended,  since  it  provides  a 
larger  and  more  favorable  area  for  the  roots.  When 
commercial  fertilizers  are  used,  they  may  be  applied  broad- 
cast before  plowing  or  may  be  placed  in  the  shallow 
furrow  before  bedding.  Sometimes  the  fertilizer  is  not 
applied  until  after  the  land  is  plowed ;  but  when  this  is 
done,  it  should  be  applied  a  week  or  10  days  before  the 
seed  is  sown,  since  some  of  the  fertilizers  injure  the  seed  if 
applied  with  it.  The  preparation  of  the  land  after 
plowing  should  be  such  as  to  make  a  finely  pulverized 
but  compact  seed  bed. 

368.  Planting  and  cultivation.  —  Cotton  is  planted  in 
rows  varying  in  width  from  3  to  5  feet,  depending  upon 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  upon  the  variety  grown. 
Small  growing  varieties  may  be  planted  more  closely 
than  large,  rank  growing  plants,  and  the  rows  may  be 
closer  together  on  fertile  than  on  poor  soils.  On  soils  of 
medium  fertility,  with  medium  sized  plants,  the  rows  are 
commonly  4  feet  apart.  The  seeds  may  be  planted  in 
hills  or  scattered  along  in  a  row,  the  latter  method  being 
the  more  common  practice.  The  seed  is  planted  with  a 
one-row  planter,  at  the  rate  of  from  1  to  li  bushels  per 


r»r/A 

350  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

acre.  If  all  the  seeds  grow,  the  plants  are  much  too  thick 
and  must  be  thinned  out.  The  thinning  is  done  after  the 
plants  are  a  few  inches  high  by  hoeing  out  the  surplus  and 
leaving  plants  12  or  16  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Cultiva- 
tion may  be  done  at  first  with  a  light  harrow  or  weeder 
when  the  plants  are  a  few  inches  in  height.  These  im- 
plements may  drag  out  a  few  plants,  but  if  thinning  is 
delayed  until  after  such  cultivation  has  been  done,  the 
injury  to  the  plants  is  not  great.  Further  cultivation 
during  the  remainder  of  the  growing  season  should  be 
frequent  and  shallow.  This  may  be  done  with  cultivators 
similar  to  those  used  in  the  cultivation  of  corn,  the  single 
cultivators  being  commonly  employed. 

369.  Harvesting.  —  Most  of  the  cotton  crop  is  har- 
vested by  hand.  Men,  women,  and  children  pass  down  the 
rows  and  pick  off  the  fiber  in  which  the  seeds  remain, 
placing  it  in  bags  or  baskets  which  they  carry  with  them. 
When  the  bags  are  full  they  are  emptied  into  a  wagon 
which  hauls  the  loose  cotton  to  the  gin.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  build  machines  to  pick  the  cotton, 
some  of  which  have  been  successful,  but  their  use  has  not 
become  general.  The  difficulty  with  machine  harvesters 
is  that  they  pick  leaves  and  trash  along  with  the  cotton. 
Then,  too,  the  cotton  does  not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time, 
and  in  order  to  gather  it  in  the  best  condition,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  two  or  three  pickings.  The  machine  in 
passing  over  the  field  during  the  first  picking  may  destroy 
or  damage  much  of  that  which  is  not  ripe.  Usually  the 
first  picking  is  a  light  one,  the  bulk  of  the  crop  being 
gathered  at  the  second  picking.  Hand  picking,  while 
expensive,  enables  the  grower  to  gather  the  crop  as  it 
ripens,  and  also  to  keep  the  fiber  free  from  leaves  and 
trash. 


THE  FIBER   CROPS  351 

370.  Insects    and    diseases.  —  The    cotton    grower    must 
contend  with  numerous  injurious   insects   and   diseases.     The 
most  common  and  injurious  insects  are  the  boll  weevil  and  the 
boll  worm,  which  do  considerable  damage  to  the  crop  in  many 
sections  of  the  cotton  region.     The  boll  weevil  is  a  small  insect, 
about  one-half  inch  long,  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  bolls  soon 
after  the  blossoms  fall.     The  larvsB  which  hatch  from  them  eat 
out  the  center  of  the  boll.     The  most  effective  means  now  known 
of  combating  them  is  the  removal  of  the  affected  bolls  and  their 
destruction,  and  the  growing  of  early  varieties  which  mature 
before  the  insects  become  numerous. 

The  cotton  boll  worm  is  closely  related  to  the  corn  ear  worm, 
and  affects  the  cotton  plant  by  eating  the  leaves  and  the  im- 
mature seeds  in  the  boll.  The  same  methods  as  were  recom- 
mended for  the  control  of  the  boll  weevil  may  be  employed  to 
control  the  boll  worm.  Sometimes  arsenical  poisons  may  be 
sprayed  on  the  affected  plants  with  good  results.  The  important 
diseases  of  cotton  are  the  wilt  and  the  root  rot.  Rotation  of 
crops  is  recommended  as  the  most  effective  means  of  controlling 
them. 

FLAX 

Flax  culture  begins  with  the  recorded  history  of  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Hebrews,  who  used  this  fiber  in  the 
making  of  clothing,  many  years  before  the  dawn  of  the 
Christian  era.  So  far  as  is  known,  its  original  home  was 
somewhere  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  country,  whence 
it  was  introduced  into  Asia  and  Europe  and  later  was 
brought  to  the  United  States.  For  many  years  it  was 
grown  only  for  the  fiber,  but  more  recently  the  value  of 
the  seed  as  a  source  of  oil  has  brought  about  the  rapid 
increase  of  its  culture  in  many  places  for  this  purpose. 

371.  Description.  —  Flax,    Linum    usitatissimum,    be- 
longs to  the  Linaceae  or  Flax  family,  of  which  it  is  the 
most  important  species.     One  or  two  other  species  are 
cultivated  to  a  small  extent  in  some  parts  of  the  world, 
and  several  grow  wild  both  in  America  and  Europe.     Flax 


352 


FIELD  CEOP  PRODUCTION 


is  an  annual  with  a  single  upright  stem,  which  branches 
freely  when  the  plants  are  seeded  thinly,  but  slightly  or 
not  at  all  when  they  grow  close  together.  The  plant  has  a 
long,  fine  tap  root,  with  a  few  small  lateral  branches.  It 

grows  from  \\  to  3 
feet  in  height,  depend- 
ing upon  the  variety 
and  upon  the  environ- 
ment in  which  it  grows. 
The  leaves  are  simple 
and  almost  sessile  and 
arranged  alternately. 
The  flowers  are  rather 
large  and  light  blue  in 
color.  The  seed  pod 
is  usually  ten-seeded, 
the  "  seeds  are  lens- 
shaped,  with  a  smooth, 
polished  surface,  and 
vary  from  yellow  to 
brown  in  color.  The 
stem  of  flax  is  made 
up  of  three  parts, 
namely,  the  bark,  com- 
posed of  several  lay- 
ers, the  wood,  and  the 
pith. 

372.  Uses  of  flax  fiber.  —  In  preparing  the  flax  fiber 
for  use,  the  plant  is  first  freed  from  the  seed  capsules, 
after  which  the  bast,  that  part  of  the  bark  used  for  the 
fiber,  must  be  separated  from  the  central  woody  portion 
of  the  stem  by  a  process,  the  first  step  of  which  is  called 
"  retting."  There  are  two  principal  methods  employed, 


FIG.  124.  —  Seed  pods  of  flax. 


THE  FIBER   CROPS 


353 


namely,  cold  water  retting  and  dew  retting,  the  latter 
being  the  one  most  commonly  used.  In  dew  retting 
the  straw  is  spread  out  on  the  ground  and  exposed  to 
the  weather  for  several  weeks.  Next  it  is  collected 
and  subjected  to  the 
"  breaking  "  process, 
which  is  the  removing 
of  the  fiber  from  the 
wood.  The  fiber  thus 
removed  is  freed  from 
the  rest  of  the  bark 
and  adherent  parts  of 
the  wood  by  "  scutch- 
ing "  or  beating  with 
paddles.  The  final 
process  is  the  "hack- 
ling" or  combing, 
which  separates  the 
fibers  into  the  "  flax 
line"  which  is  the  long 
and  valuable  fiber,  and 
the  "  tow,"  the  short 
tangled  fibers  used  in 
the  weaving  of  coarse 

linen.     The  fiber  is  then  packed  in  bales,  in  which  shape 
it  goes  to  the  mill. 

Fabrics  made  from  flax  are  characterized  by  snowy 
whiteness,  when  freed  from  impurities,  a  luster  similar  to 
that  of  silk,  and  great  strength  or  tenacity.  As  has  been 
mentioned  before,  linen  is  one  of  the  oldest  textiles  of  which 
we  know,  having  been  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  for 
the  wrappings  of  mummies  and  for  the  making  of  priests' 
garments.  Linen  of  good  quality  becomes  more  beautiful 

2A 


FIG.  125.  —  A  bundle  of  flax  and  types  of 
fiber. 


354  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

with  laundering,  and  on  account  of  the  length  of  the  fiber, 
which  is  commonly  from  10  to  12  inches,  it  does  not 
become  fuzzy  with  wear  as  do  cotton  materials. 

373.  Use  of  flax  seed.  —  Flax  seed  has  a  large,  oily 
embryo,  which  yields  from  30  to  38  pounds  of  oil  per  100 
pounds  of  seed.    The  removing  of  the  oil  is  done  by  crushing 
the  seed  and  heating  it  to  165°  F.  and  either  subjecting  it 
to  high  pressure  or  treating  it  with  naphtha  to  extract  the 
oil.     The  oil  is  known  on  the  market  as  linseed  oil,  and  is 
used  largely  for  paints  and  varnishes,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  highly  prized  on  account  of  its  quick  drying  proper- 
ties.    It  is  also  used  in  making  printer's  ink  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  a  substitute  for  rubber. 

The  part  of  the  seed  remaining  behind  after  the  removal 
of  the  oil  is  linseed  meal,  which  is  highly  prized  as  stock 
food  because  of  its  high  protein  content,  which  is  from  20 
to  25  per  cent. 

374.  Production  and  distribution.  —  Flax  is  grown  to 
some  extent  in  almost  all  agricultural  countries.     Russia 
produces  approximately  two-thirds  of  the  world's  crop 
of  fiber,  while  Austria-Hungary,  France,  Belgium,  and  the 
Netherlands  are  responsible  for  almost  all  of  the  remaining 
third  of  the  world's  crop.     In  the  production  of  flax  seed, 
Argentina  in  South  America  ranks  first,  producing  about 
one-third,  and  the  United  States  ranks  second,  producing 
about  one-fifth  of  the  world's  crop.     The  total  production 
for  the  world  is  about  100  million  bushels  of  seed  and  1500 
million  pounds  of  fiber. 

In  the  United  States,  North  Dakota  produces  about  one- 
half  of  the  total  crop,  while  Minnesota,  South  Dakota, 
and  Montana  produce  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder 
of  the  crop.  Very  little  flax  is  grown  in  the  United  States 
for  fiber,  it  being  grown  for  seed  almost  exclusively.  The 


THE  FIBER   CROPS  355 

yield  of  seed  per  acre  varies  from  3  to  12  bushels,  the  aver- 
age probably  being  about  8  to  10  bushels.  The  price  per 
bushel  varies  from  one  to  two  dollars,  the  average  being 
about  $1.50. 

375.  Adaptation.  —  Flax  grows  well  on  almost  all  types 
of  soil,  but  sandy  loams  or  loose  types  produce  the  best 
yields.     So  far  as  climate  is  concerned,  flax  may  be  grown 
for  seed  in  any  place  that  produces  wheat  successfully. 
When  grown  for  fiber,  the  best  results  are  obtained  in 
cool,  moist  climates.     In  the  United  States,  since  flax  is 
grown  for  the  seed  alone,  it  is  handled  much  like  a  grain 
crop.     It  is  usually  of  greater  importance  in  new  agri- 
cultural sections,  and  often  is  the  first  crop  seeded  on  a 
newly  plowed  prairie.     It  is  one  of  the  best  crops  with 
which  to  break  in  new  ground,  and  is  at  the  same  time 
adapted  to  the  extensive  cultivation  necessarily  practiced 
in  these  sections. 

376.  Cultural  methods.  —  The  usual  practice  of  pre- 
paring a  prairie  sod  for  flax  is  to  give  it  a  shallow  plowing 
either  in  the  fall  or  early  spring  and  work  it  down  with  the 
roller  and  harrow.     Sometimes  when  large  acreages  are 
to  be  seeded  in  a  short  time,  the  seeding  is  done  with  little 
or  no  preparation  of  the  soil,  other  than  plowing. 

The  usual  method  of  sowing  the  seed  is  with  a  grain 
drill,  which  is  so  regulated  as  to  place  the  seed  about  1  inch 
deep.  From  2  to  3  pecks  of  seed  are  required  per  acre 
when  the  flax  is  grown  for  the  seed,  and  from  6  to  8 
pecks  when  it  is  grown  for  the  fiber.  A  thin  rate  of  seeding 
encourages  the  plants  to  branch  freely,  which  favors  a 
large  yield  of  seed,  while  a  thick  rate  permits  little  or  no 
branching  and  causes  the  production  of  long,  straight 
stems,  which  yield  a  long  fiber.  The  flax  seed  may  be 
sown  as  soon  as  the  danger  of  frost  is  over  in  the  spring. 


356  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

The  length  of  the  growing  season  is  from  90  to  100  days. 
Flax  is  attacked  by  a  wilt  fungus  which  can  be  controlled 
to  considerable  extent  by  treating  the  seed  before  planting 
with  formaldehyde  in  the  same  manner  which  was  rec- 
ommended for  treating  the  seed  wheat  for  smut. 

Flax  when  grown  for  seed  is  harvested  with  a  grain 
binder  and  thrashed  with  a  grain  thrashing  machine. 
The  harvesting,  therefore,  is  very  similar  to  that  of  wheat 
or  oats.  When  grown  for  the  fiber,  the  plants  are  pulled 
by  hand,  tied  into  small  bundles,  and  put  into  the  shock 
to  cure.  The  seed  is  thrashed  from  the  bundles  without 
injuring  the  straw  by  rubbing  or  by  special  machinery. 

HEMP 

377.  Hemp,  Cannabis  saliva,  is  a  member  of  the  Moraceae  or 
Mulberry  family  and  is  therefore  closely  related  to  the  hop  and 
osage  orange,  which  are  also  members  of  this  family.  Hemp  is  a 
large,  rank  growing,  annual  plant,  bearing  the  pistillate  and 
staminate  flowers  on  separate  plants.  The  pistillate  or  seed- 
bearing  plants  are  more  branched  and  do  not  produce  as  desirable 
fiber  as  the  staminate  or  pollen-producing  plants.  The  plants 
grow  from  10  to  15  feet  in  height  under  favorable  conditions,  and 
mature  seed  in  from  100  to  110  days.  Hemp  thrives  best  in 
temperate  climates  and  may  be  grown  on  any  soil  adapted  to  the 
growing  of  corn.  The  seed  is  sown  just  before  corn  planting, 
usually  broadcast  or  drilled  in  with  a  grain  drill,  at  the  rate  of 
4  to  5  pecks  per  acre.  When  seeded  in  this  way,  no  cultivation  is 
necessary,  as  the  plants  grow  rapidly  and  give  the  weeds  little 
chance  to  compete  with  them.  In  fact,  in  fields  known  to  be 
very  badly  infested  with  weeds  sometimes  the  crop  is  seeded  for 
several  successive  years  to  smother  them  out,  which  it  does  very 
effectively.  The  crop  may  be  cut  with  a  mower  or  self-rake  when 
the  plants  are  not  too  large,  but  tall  plants  must  be  cut  by  hand  as 
corn  is  harvested,  because  they  are  too  large  and  woody  for  the 
mower.  After  cutting,  the  hemp  is  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground 
for  some  time  in  order  to  separate  the  fiber  from  the  woody  stem. 


THE  FIBER  CROPS  357 

The  fiber  is  removed  from  the  stem  and  handled  in  much  the 
same  way  as  was  explained  in  the  case  of  flax.  In  many  parts  of 
Europe  the  crop  is  grown  for  both  seed  and  fiber.  From  10  to 
25  bushels  of  seed  may  be  grown  per  acre.  It  contains  from  30 
to  35  per  cent  of  oil  which  is  used  in  paint,  varnishes,  and  for 
culinary  purposes.  The  yield  of  fiber  may  be  from  500  to  1600 
pounds  per  acre,  and  it  is  valuable  for  making  coarse  cloth,  ropes, 
twines  and  carpet  warp.  Hemp  is  not  grown  extensively  in  the 
United  States,  the  principal  regions  of  production  here  being  the 
blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  and  certain  parts 
of  New  York,  Nebraska,  and  Iowa.  In  central  and  western 
Asia,  and  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  the  crop  is  an  important  one. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  POTATO 

BY  J.  H,  GOURLEY 
New  Hampshire  Agricultural  College 

THE  "  Irish  "  potato  is  one  of  the  few  valuable  crops 
used  for  human  food  of  which  America  can  claim  to  be 
the  original  home.  In  the  valleys  of  the  mountains  of 
Chili,  South  America,  the  potato  was  found  growing  wild 
by  the  earliest  travelers  to  the  new  world.  They  found 
the  natives  cultivating  it  so  generally  that  it  seemed  to 
be  an  old  crop.  These  early  travelers  carried  some  of 
the  tubers  back  to  Spain  and  from  there  the  potato  was 
taken  to  Italy.  Here  it  was  grown  rather  commonly 
and  found  its  way  northward  into  the  Netherlands.  It 
was  probably  first  grown  in  North  America  in  what  is 
now  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Between  1580  and  1590  the 
potato  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  from  Virginia 
by  Sir  Thomas  Herriot,  a  companion  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
Potatoes  were  first  planted  in  Ireland  near  Cork.  In  the 
year  1846  there  was  a  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland 
which  caused  great  suffering,  and  many  people  left  the 
country  and  came  to  America,  to  such  an  extent  were  they 
depending  upon  it  for  food. 

378.  Production.  —  At  present  the  United  States  is 
far  behind  the  countries  of  Europe  in  the  production  per 
acre.  The  United  States  has  an  average  yield  per  acre 

358 


THE  POTATO  359 

of  89.8  bushels,  Germany  197.3  bushels,  and  Great  Britain 
186.4  bushels.  In  the  United  States  potatoes  rank  fourth 
in  the  number  of  bushels  produced  among  the  staple 
crops,  corn  being  first,  oats  second,  and  wheat  third.  The 
states  ranking  the  highest  in  gross  yield  of  potatoes  given 
in  order  of  production  are  New  York,  Michigan,  Maine, 
Wisconsin,  and  Pennsylvania.  The  states  having  the 
highest  average  yield  per  acre  given  in  order  of  priority 
are :  Maine,  225  bushels  per  acre ;  Idaho,  200  bushels  ; 
Montana,  180  bushels ;  Nevada,  180  bushels ;  Utah,  180 
bushels ;  Washington,  170  bushels ;  Colorado,  160  bushels. 
379.  Description.  —  Naturally  the  potato  is  an  annual 
plant ;  it  springs  up  from  a  seed,  grows,  blooms  and 
produces  seed  and  dies  in  one  season.  Under  cultivation, 
however,  it  has  become  a  perennial  plant  by  means  of  the 
tubers.  The  flowers  vary  in  color,  some  being  white  and 
others  purple.  Some  varieties  seldom  bloom,  and  those 
which  do  bloom  rather  freely  rarely  set  fruit  in  the  eastern 
and  central  part  of  the  United  States.  In  some  sections, 
however,  these  same  varieties  set  fruit  quite  commonly. 
The  true  fruit,  or  seed  ball  as  it  is  often  called,  is  round 
and  about  the  size  of  a  ground  cherry.  When  cut  open 
it  is  found  to  be  full  of  seeds  and  has  a  structure  similar 
to  a  tomato.  The  part  which  we  eat  is  simply  an  enlarged 
underground  stem.  It  does  not  grow  on  the  true  roots 
but  on  the  end  of  a  stolon ;  rootlets  are  never  found  com- 
ing from  a  tuber  or  from  the  stolon  which  bears  it.  Every 
tuber  has  a  number  of  "  eyes  "  on  the  surface,  some 
varieties  having  a  much  larger  number  than  others.  In 
some  varieties  they  are  shallow,  in  others  deep,  and  in  all 
cases  they  are  much  more  numerous  at  the  "  bud  end  " 
than  where  the  stolon  is  attached  to  the  tuber.  If  we 
examine  them  closely,  we  will  see  that  they  are  arranged 


360  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

in  a  spiral  form.  Now  if  we  can  imagine  this  tuber  elon- 
gated or  drawn  out,  these  eyes  would  simply  represent  buds 
on  an  underground  stem,  each  of  which  could  send  up  a 
shoot  or  plant.  Practically  all  of  the  higher  plants  have  a 
means  of  storing  up  food  in  some  place  in  their  tissues,  which 
can  be  used  at  a  time  when  they  need  a  surplus  to  start 
them  into  growth  from  a  dormant  condition.  Sometimes 
it  is  in  the  form  of  starch,  or  it  may  be  sugar  or  oil.  In 
the  apple  tree  this  food  is  found  about  each  bud,  in  the 
currant  considerable  food  is  stored  in  the  roots;  but 
in  the  potato  a  large  amount  of  starch  is  stored  in  an 
underground  stem  which  becomes  greatly  enlarged  —  the 
tuber.  The  amount  of  starch  varies  from  12  per  cent  to 
20  per  cent  in  most  commercial  varieties. 

CULTURAL   METHODS 

380.  Soil.  —  The  prime  essential  of  a  potato  soil  is  to 
have  it  well  drained.     The  loose  and  mellow  condition  of 
the  soil  is  of  greater  importance  with  this  crop  than  a 
large  amount  of  native  fertility.     While  the  potato  can 
be  grown  on  a  variety  of  soils  with  success,  the  medium 
light  soils  are  usually  best.     A  gravelly  or  sandy  loam  well 
filled  with  humus  is  ideal  because  it  affords  good  drainage 
and  yet  supplies  a  liberal  amount  of  moisture  which  is 
necessary  for  a  large  crop.     A  light,  sandy  soil  is  usually 
preferred  for  early  potatoes.     If  a  soil  is  not  naturally 
well  drained,  then  tiling  should  be  put  in  before  maximum 
results  can  be  expected.     When  water  stands  for  a  part 
of  the  growing  season  in  pockets  in  the  soil,  many  of  the 
plants  will  die  out.     This  can  be  seen  in  the  irrigated 
sections  in  the  west. 

381.  Rotation.  —  Because  of  the  serious  diseases  and 
insects  which  attack  the  potato,  it  is  well  to  practice  a 


THE  POTATO  361 

systematic  rotation  of  crops.  Potatoes  following  clover 
is  usually  considered  an  advantageous  rotation,  because, 
with  this  practice,  the  soil  not  only  has  a  good  supply  of 
humus  but  an  additional  supply  of  nitrogen  which  can  be 
utilized.  An  old  sod  turned  under  may  cause  consider- 
able trouble  from  white  grubs,  which  sometimes  practically 
destroy  a  potato  crop ;  but  when  a  short  rotation  is  prac- 
ticed, this  trouble  is  not  so  likely  to  become  serious.  Pota- 
toes, wheat,  and  clover;  or  potatoes,  strawberries,  and 
clover  will  make  a  good  three  or  four  year  rotation.  When 
planted  on  sod  land,  the  plowing  should  be  done  in  the 
fall  and  the  land  well  worked  down  in  the  spring  with  a 
disk  and  smoothing  harrow  before  planting. 

382.  Planting  the  seed.  —  The  time  of  planting  varies 
in  different  sections  of  the  country.     Generally  the  seed 
should  be  planted  by  May  20  for  best  results ;  however, 
in  some  sections  it  is  June  20  before   the  late  potatoes 
are  planted. 

383.  Sun  sprouting.  —  It  is  often  difficult  to  keep  pota- 
toes from  sprouting  badly  and  shrinking  in  early  spring 
before  time  for  planting.     This  problem   can  often  be 
solved  by  rubbing  off  all  white  sprouts  and  placing  the 
potatoes  in  the  sunlight  for  two  or  three  weeks  before 
planting.     They  can  be  spread  out  on  the  barn  floor,  or 
shelves  can  be  built  upon  the  south  side  of  the  barn  or  other 
building   for   containing  them,    and  they  may  then  be 
spread  out  in  a  single  layer  and  left  exposed  to  the  light 
until  they  are  wanted  for  planting.     A  short  green  sprout 
will  develop  in  place  of  the  long  white  ones  usually  seen  in 
the  cellar.     The  potato  thus  treated  can  be  planted  as 
late  as  the  first  of  July  and  yet  a  good  crop  may  be  secured. 
It  is  desirable  to  select  the  seed  stock  for  the  following 
season  from  this  late  planted  crop,  which,  however,  would 


362  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

not  need  to  be  sun  sprouted  before  planting.  The  tubers 
which  have  been  sun  sprouted  are  usually  cut  with  one 
sprout  to  a  piece ;  the  growth  is  very  rapid  and  a  higher 
percentage  of  stand  is  secured  than  from  unsprouted  seed. 
The  tubers  thus  grown  keep  better,  shrink  less,  and  are 
much  slower  in  sending  out  the  white  sprouts  than  ordi- 
nary seed. 

384.  Northern  grown  seed.  —  While  it  is  often  stated 
that  northern  grown  seed  is  much  superior  to  "  home  " 
grown  seed  or  that  grown  south  of  a  given  point,  yet  a 
number  of  experiments  have  not  shown  this  to  be  the 
case.     If  the  seed  of  a  given  variety  is  of  equal  maturity, 
free  from  disease,  and  of  equal  quality  in  other  respects, 
little  difference  in  results  will  be  noticed. 

385.  Rate  of  planting.  —  Various  quantities  of  seed  are 
used  per  acre,   depending  on  the  distance  of  planting, 
somewhat  on  the  variety  in  question,  and  method  of  cut- 
ting the  seed.     Twelve  to  fourteen  bushels  of  seed  is  a 
common  quantity  used.     Medium  size  tubers  are  selected 
and  cut  two  eyes  to  the  piece.     Seed  pieces  are  dropped 
every  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  the  row,  and  the  rows 
thirty-three  to  thirty-six  inches  apart.     In  some  sections 
they  are  planted  in  hills  and  cultivated  both  ways.     The 
seed  pieces  are  covered  three  to  four  inches  deep. 

386.  Fertilizers.  —  In  order  to  secure  the  largest  possi- 
ble yield  of  any  crop,  there  should  at  all  times  be  a  suffi- 
cient- quantity  of  moisture  and  plant  food.     It  is  as  great  a 
disadvantage  to  a  plant  to  be  stunted  at  any  period  of  its 
growth  as  it  is  to  an  animal.     But  the  amount  of  artificial 
plant  food  which  a  crop  requires  can  only  be  determined 
by  experimenting  on  every  farm.     We  know  that  potatoes 
use  a  large  amount  of  potash  in  growing,  but  many  soils 
(clay  soils  especially)  are  oftentimes  so   rich   in  potash 


THE  POTATO  363 

that  very  little  or  none  need  be  supplied  artificially. 
While  an  excess  of  nitrogen  may  cause  the  potatoes  to 
"  run  to  tops/'  and  set  few  tubers,  yet  some  nitrogen  can 
usually  be  used  to  advantage.  Soils  very  often  contain 
less  available  phosphoric  acid  than  is  necessary  for 
the  fullest  returns  in  potatoes,  and  phosphoric  acid  is 
usually  supplied  in  some  form.  Larger  returns  over  a 
series  of  years  are  more  likely  to  be  secured  by  using  a 
complete  fertilizer  than  by  using  any  one  or  two  of  the 
elements  separately.  A  fertilizer  which  will  analyze 
about  4  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  6  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  10  per  cent  of  potash  is  one  that  is  commonly 
used  in  large  potato  growing  districts.  The  per  cent  of 
potash  on  many  soils  could  be  reduced  to  6  to  8  per  cent. 

387.  Varieties.  —  The  selection  of  varieties  of  all  kinds 
of  fruits  and  vegetables  is  always  of  interest  to  lovers  of 
plants,  and  is  a  question  of  great  importance.  However, 
as  late  as  1771  there  were  only  two  varieties  of  potatoes 
recorded,  one  white  and  one  red  variety.  But  the  multi- 
plication of  varieties  in  recent  years  has  been  enormous, 
and  there  have  been  many  hundreds  of  varieties  on  the 
market.  There  are  more  than  one  thousand  named  va- 
rieties on  the  market  at  the  present  time.  Many  of  these 
have  proved  inferior  to  our  standard  sorts  and  many  others 
have  proven  to  be  old  varieties  renamed. 

Each  locality  must  test  the  standard  varieties  and  decide 
which  will  do  best  under  its  conditions.  Because  a  variety 
does  well  in  Maine  is  no  proof  that  it  will  do  well  in  Illinois 
or  Colorado,  neither  does  the  success  of  a  variety  on  a  clay 
loam  indicate  positively  what  it  will  do  on  a  sandy  or 
muck  soil  on  an  adjoining  farm.  The  confusion  which 
often  occurs  regarding  varieties  of  potatoes  in  many  cases 
is  caused  by  the  fact  that  there  are  several  distinct  types 


364 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


or  groups  of  potatoes,  and  in  each  group  there  are  many 
varieties  which  very  closely  resemble  one  another.  The 
following  types  are  among  the  best  known :  Early  Ohio 
type,  including  Early  Ohio,  Early  Six  Weeks,  Acme,  and 
Ohio  Junior :  Early  Rose  type,  including  Early  Rose, 
Northern  Star,  Early  Fortune,  Bovee,  Sensation,  Algoma, 
Early  Breakfast,  and  Early  Michigan.  Green  Mountain 
type,  including  Green  Mountain,  Gold  Coin,  Uncle  Sam, 
and  Happy  Medium.  Rural  New  Yorker  type,  including 


FIG.  126.  —  Harvesting  potatoes  in  Ohio. 

Rural  New  Yorker,  Carman  No.  3,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
Banner,  President  Roosevelt,  and  Prosperity.  A  few  of 
the  well-known  varieties  which  do  well  in  some  sections 
of  the  United  States  are  given  in  about  the  order  of  their 
maturity :  Early  Petosky,  Irish  Cobbler,  Bliss  Triumph, 
Early  Ohio,  Early  Rose,  Early  Thoroughbred,  Bovee, 
Algoma,  Burbank,  Green  Mountain,  Vermont  Gold  Coin, 
Carman  No.  3,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Rural  New  Yorker, 
White  Pearl,  and  Peachblow. 

388.    Much  is  said  about  the  "  running  out  "  of  varieties 


THE  POTATO 


365 


and  many  persons  find  an  all  sufficient  excuse  in  that  idea 
for  their  failures.  The  better  growers,  however,  believe 
that  good  culture  and  care  of  the  seed  stock  will  keep 
varieties  in  a  productive  state  over  many  years.  In  some 
sections  the  ravages  of  disease  are  so  severe  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  growers  to  grow  their  own  seed,  but 


FIG.  127.  —  A  potato  digger. 

each  year  they  must  send  for  seed  to  some  section  which  is 
known  to  be  free  from  the  trouble.  Varieties  which  at 
one  time  flourished  in  the  East  and  later  failed  to  produce 
good  crops,  supposedly  because  they  had  "  run  out,"  are 
now  among  the  most  prolific  sorts  in  the  regions  farther 
West. 


366  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

389.  Harvesting.  —  Because  the  potato  is  likely  to  be 
injured  by  frost  the  crop  should  be  dug  and  stored  before 
heavy  freezes.  '  Ordinarily  late  potatoes   are  dry  when  the 
vines  die  down,  indicating  maturity  of  the  tubers.     How- 
ever, when  the  vines  have  died  down  as  a  result  of  late 
blight,  it  is  well  to  wait  some  ten  days  before  digging,  as 
the  chances  of  rot  in  storage  are  thereby  greatly  lessened. 
Potatoes  should  be  dug  when  dry  and  placed  in  storage  at 
once.     In  a  small  way  potatoes  are  dug  with  a  fork  or 
potato  hook,  but  on  a  larger  scale  the  potato  digger  drawn 
by  horse  power  is  commonly  used.     The  potato  box  or 
crate  is  largely  used  at  present  to  replace  the  rougher 
handling  in  bulk  by  pouring  from  baskets  into  the  wagon 
bed  and  shoveling  into  the  cellar  or  storage. 

390.  Storage.  —  Potatoes  freeze  easily   and    the  tem- 
perature in  storage  should  never  reach  the  freezing  point. 
While  34°  F.  is  recommended  as  a  safe  storage  temperature 
the  tubers  will  have  a  better  cooking  quality  if  stored  at  a 
temperature  somewhat  higher,  ranging  from  35°  to  40°  F. 

Ordinary  cellars  are  usually  utilized  for  storage.  Where 
this  is  done,  it  is  well  to  construct  a  flue  for  conducting  air 
into  the  cellar  from  the  outside  at  the  level  of  the  cellar 
floor  and  have  an  opening  at  the  top  of  the  cellar  to  allow 
the  warm  air,  laden  with  gases  and  impurities,  to  pass  off. 
The  cellar  should  be  kept  dark  and  some  means  of  arti- 
ficial heat  should  be  provided  in  case  there  is  danger  of 
freezing.  The  loss  in  storage  from  fall  till  April  or  May 
will  vary  from  5  to  12  per  cent,  10  or  12  per  cent  being 
common.  This  loss  is  due  to  loss  of  moisture  and  respira- 
tion. If  the  potatoes  are  diseased,  the  loss  will  be  in  excess 
of  this  figure. 

391.  Insects.  —  The    Colorado    beetle    (Leptinotarsa    decem- 
lineata)   which  is  the  familiar  striped    "potato   bug,"  is   the 


THE  POTATO  367 

best  known  and  probably  the  most  troublesome  of  the  potato 
insects.  Many  of  our  most  destructive  insects  have  been  im- 
ported from  other  countries,  but  this  one  is  a  native  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region.  It  feeds  on  the  buffalo  bur  in  its 
native,  wild  state,  but  it  also  attacks  a  number  of  our  garden 
crops,  among  which  are  the  tomato,  egg  plant,  tobacco,  and 
pepper,  as  well  as  potatoes.  The  eggs  are  bright  yellow  and  are 
laid  in  clusters  on  the  potato  leaf.  The  eggs  hatch  and  the  young 
larvae  begin  feeding  at  once  on  the  leaves,  and  may  entirely 
devour  them  if  not  checked  by  some  poison.  The  leaves  should 
be  entirely  coated  with  the  spray  as  soon  as  the  eggs  hatch,  as 
the  younger  the  bugs  are  the  more  easily  they  are  killed.  Arse- 
nate  of  lead  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  3|  to  4  pounds  to  50 
gallons  of  water,  or  where  it  is  preferable,  about  \  pound  of  Paris 
green  to  50  gallons  of  water  may  be  used.  Bordeaux  mixture  is 
also  offensive  to  them  and  commonly  used  in  conjunction  with 
these  poisons,  with  the  double  purpose  of  controlling  certain 
diseases  and  assisting  in  combating  the  potato  beetle  and  also 
the  flea  beetle.  It  requires  about  100  gallons  of  the  spray  per 
acre.  It  is  applied  by  a  spray  machine  drawn  by  horsepower,  or 
a  hand  sprayer  may  be  used  successfully  on  small  patches. 

392.  The  Flea  Beetle   (Crepidodera  cucumeris).  —  This  tiny 
flea-like  beetle  is  seen  on  tomatoes  and  potatoes  when  they  are 
small  and  tender  and  easily  injured.     Instead  of  eating  the  edges 
of  the  leaves,  as  the  potato  beetle  does,  they  eat  them  full  of 
holes  and  may  do  as  much  injury  as  the  Colorado  beetle.     While 
it  is  difficult  to  control  them,  yet  Bordeaux  mixture,  to  which 
some  arsenate  of  lead  has  been  added,  forms  a  thin  plaster  over 
the  leaves  which  is  not  to  their  liking  and  thus  causes  them  to 
seek  other  food.     They   are   much  worse  where  potatoes  are 
grown  more  than  one  year  in  succession  on  the  same  ground,  so 
for  this  reason  rotation  of  crops  is  desirable. 

393.  The  June   Beetle    (Lachnosterna  spp.).  —  The  common 
white  grubs  or  larvae  of  the  May  beetles  or  June  bugs  are  one  of 
the  most  common  pests  in  field  and  garden.    They  are  troublesome 
on  newly  plowed  sod  lands,  especially  when  the  land  had  been  in 
grass  for  a  number  of  years.     It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the 
potato  crop  practically  ruined  under  such  conditions.     They  are 
difficult  to  control,  and  rotation  of  crops,  late  fall  and  early 
spring  plowing,  allowing  swine  to  work  over  the  land,  and  allow- 


368  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

ing  chickens  to  run  on  a  newly  plowed  field,  are  means  used  to 
control  them. 

DISEASES 

394.  Early  Blight   (Alternaria  solani).  —  This  is  an  old  dis- 
ease which  has  probably  been  more  or  less  destructive  for  many 
years.     It  begins  to  make  its  appearance  on  the  plants  about  the 
time  they  are  in  blossom  or  sometimes  when  the  plants  are  quite 
small.     It  is  distinguished  by  small  round  grayish  patches  which 
later  turn  brown.     The  spots  increase  in  size  and  many  of  them 
may  coalesce  and  form  large  irregular  patches.     The  punctures 
made  by  the  flea  beetles  and  other  insects  seem  to  favor  the 
entrance  of  the  fungus  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant.     While  the 
disease  is  not  followed  by  the  rotting  of  the  tubers,  it  decreases  the 
yield  greatly.     Some  seasons  it  lessens  the  yield  by  many  millions 
of  bushels. 

395.  Late  Blight  (Phytophthora  infestans).  —  This  disease  has 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  destructive  and  widespread  of  all 
diseases  of  the  potato.     It  is  found  in  all  countries  of  the  world 
where  the  potato  is  grown.     The  disease  appears  as  an  irregular 
dead  area  on  any  portion  of  the  leaf,  but  commonly  it  first  appears 
at  the  tip  or  on  the  margins  of  the  leaf.     There  is  often  a  notice- 
able and  offensive  odor  from  a  field  affected  with  the  blight, 
especially  if  the  air  is  filled  with  moisture.     In  order  to  control 
the  disease  the  plant  should  be  sprayed  thoroughly  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture.1     Spraying  should  be  begun  when  the  plants  are 
six  to  eight  inches  high  and  repeated  every  ten  days  to  two  weeks 
throughout  the  season,  making  in  all  about  five  applications. 

396.  Scab    (Oospora  scabies).  —  This  disease  is   quite   com- 
mon in  all  potato  growing  sections.     The  irregular,  cankered- 
looking  spots  which  may  more  or  less  cover  the  tubers  are  famil- 
liar  to  every  one  who  has  ever  grown  potatoes.     This  disease  is 
known  to  live  over  in  the  soil  for  several  years  and  a  change  of 
soil  is  necessary ;   no  potato  crop  following  for  four  or  five  years 
would  be  advisable.     It  is  not  difficult  to  keep  this  trouble  in 
check  if  precautions  regarding  seed  and  rotation  are  taken  each 
year.     The  seed  should  be  treated  before  planting,  with  one  pint 

1  This  spray  is  prepared  by  dissolving  4  Ibs.  copper  sulphate  and  4  Ibs. 
stone  lime  and  adding  water  to  make  50  gal. 


THE  POTATO  369 

of  corrosive  sublimate  (bichloride  of  mercury)  in  thirty  gallons 
of  water.  Place  the  potatoes  in  a  gunny  sack  and  suspend  in  the 
solution  for  two  hours.  Then  empty  them  out  on  the  floor  or  in 
the  sun  to  dry  before  planting.  Various  methods  are  used  for 
treatment,  but  the  above  is  satisfactory  and  possibly  as  easily 
done  as  any. 

397.  Dry  Rot  (Fusarium  oxysporium)  is  widespread  over  the 
potato  regions  of  this  country  and  Europe.  It  is  a  fungous  dis- 
ease which  attacks  the  base  of  the  plant,  penetrating  into  the 
roots  and  tubers  and  causing  the  final  wilting  and  early  maturity 
of  the  plant.  It  causes  a  further  development  of  dry  rot  in 
storage.  There  is  a  tip  burn  and  yellowing  of  the  leaves,  to- 
gether with  a  rolling  up  of  the  foliage.  Affected  tubers  can  be 
determined  by  cutting  off  the  stem  end  slightly  and  observing  a 
browned  ring  near  the  skin  and  occasionally  a  browning  going 
entirely  through  the  tuber.  Spraying  will  not  control  the  disease, 
but  care  in  selecting  disease-free  seed  and  planting  on  soils  which 
have  not  become  inoculated  with  the  disease  will  be  the  proper 
precautions  to  keep  it  under  control. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

HAY  and  pasture  crops  are  usually  considered  by  the 
general  farmer,  especially  in  the  corn  belt  and  Southern 
States,  as  holding  a  place  of  minor  importance  to  the 
cereals  or  special  money  crops.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  hay  is  the  chief  money  crop,  but  even  where  it  is 
depended  upon  for  a  large  part  of  the  farm  income,  it 
seldom  receives  the  attention  accorded  other  money  crops. 
Few  farmers,  even  in  the  hay  growing  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, have  attempted  to  increase  the  yield  of  their  meadows 
and  pastures  by  methods  similar  to  those  employed  to 
increase  the  yield  of  grains.  Fertilizers  and  manures 
are  rarely  applied  to  meadows  or  pastures,  the  general 
opinion  prevailing  that  a  larger  return  may  be  received 
from  fertilizers  when  they  are  used  in  connection  with 
other  crops.  This  opinion,  however,  has  not  been  verified 
by  experiments.  Based  upon  experiments  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania Station,  Professor  Hunt  makes  the  statement 
that  the  same  amount  of  money  used  in  the  purchase  of 
fertilizers  for  grass  lands  will  bring  a  greater  profit  than 
when  applied  to  corn  or  wheat,  and  at  the  same  time  will 
make  the  soil  more  productive  for  succeeding  crops. 
Experiments  conducted  at  other  stations  and  the  experi- 
ence of  progressive  farmers  show  that  meadows  and  pas- 
tures will  respond  to  fertilization  and  improved  methods 
of  culture  quite  as  readily  as  will  general  field  crops. 

370 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  371 

Many  meadows  and  pastures  can,  by  improvement  in  the 
methods  of  culture,  and  the  application  of  fertilizers 
and  manure,  be  made  to  yield  twofold.  Pastures  that 
furnish  but  a  scanty  growth  of  forage  can  be  made  to 
furnish  an  abundance  of  grazing  for  twice  the  number  of 
animals  they  now  support.  Many  fields  that  are  now 
devoted  to  the  cereals,  especially  in  sections  of  poorer 
types  of  soils,  could  be  made  to  produce  grass  more 
profitably. 

398.  The  rotation.  —  Whether  or  not  meadows  or 
pastures  can  be  grown  as  regular  crops  in  rotation  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  topography  of  the  country  and 
the  systems  of  farming  followed.  Where  very  extensive 
systems  of  farming  are  practiced,  hay  and  pasture  crops 
are  usually  grown  in  continuous  culture,  being  the  last 
crops  to  take  a  place  in  the  rotation.  In  rolling  or  hilly 
sections  of  the  country,  the  land  that  is  too  steep  or  rough 
to  put  under  the  plow  is  devoted  to  grass.  When  land  is 
so  steep  that  serious  loss  is  likely  to  occur  by  washing  if  it 
is  plowed,  continuous  culture  is  to  be  recommended.  But 
where  land  can  be  cultivated  without  loss  from  washing, 
the  grass  lands  should  form  a  part  of  the  regular  rotation. 
In  the  corn  belt  states,  meadows  regularly  form  a  part  of 
the  rotation.  Where  hay  is  the  principal  money  crop, 
frequently  continuous  culture  is  practiced.  Hay  is  kept 
in  the  meadow  as  long  as  a  fair  crop  can  be  secured,  and 
then  the  field  is  put  under  cultivation  for  a  year  or  two, 
after  which  it  is  seeded  down  to  meadow  again.  This 
method  of  hay  production,  when  followed  for  a  number  of 
years,  is  not  profitable,  as  the  yields  usually  become  less 
each  year  until  finally  a  profitable  crop  is  no  longer  ob- 
tained. Where  continuous  hay  farming  is  practiced, 
usually  little  live  stock  is  kept  on  the  farm,  so  that  little 


372 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


barnyard  manure  is  available  for  fertilization,  and  since 
few  farmers  purchase  commercial  fertilizers  for  this  crop, 
the  result  is  a  gradually  decreased  yield.  When  land  is 
better  adapted  for  hay  production  than  for  grains  or  other 
crops,  the  largest  profits  are  received  by  growing  hay  for 
the  market.  This  system  of  farming  is  made  far  more 
profitable  and  permanent  if  fertilizers  are  regularly  applied 
to  the  grass  lands  to  return  to  the  soil  the  elements  removed 


FIG.  128.  —  Hauling  hay  to  market. 

by  the  crop.     Methods  of  fertilization  of  grass  lands  will 
be  discussed  in  another  paragraph. 

399.  Grass  mixtures.  —  When  hay  is  grown  for  the 
market,  the  highest  price  is  usually  received  when  it  is 
made  from  one  grass  rather  than  from  a  mixture  of  several 
grasses.  Thus,  timothy  hay  commands  a  better  price 
than  hay  made  from  a  mixture  of  timothy  and  redtop. 
When  hay  is  grown  for  home  use,  or  when  grasses  are 
seeded  for  pasture,  a  mixture  of  grasses  sometimes  is 
desirable,  and  will  usually  produce  a  higher  yield  than  one 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  373 

grass  grown  alone.  Some  grasses  are  shallow  rooted  while 
others  grow  medium  deep,  and  still  others  penetrate  quite 
deep  into  the  soil.  For  this  reason,  the  roots  of  several 
grasses  more  completely  occupy  the  soil  and  together 
produce  a  larger  yield  than  a  single  grass.  There  are 
some  grasses  which  start  early  in  the  spring,  while  others 
do  not  start  growth  until  later  in  the  season ;  certain  ones 
grow  well  during  the  hot,  dry  part  of  the  season,  while 
others  produce  little  forage  at  this  time ;  still  others  grow 
later  in  the  fall  than  the  majority  of  grasses,  and  certain 
kinds  may  be  better  adapted  to  some  portions  of  the  field 
than  others.  Thus  not  only  does  a  greater  production  and 
a  more  continuous  growth  result  from  a  mixture  than  from 
a  single  grass,  but  also  a  greater  variety  of  herbage  is 
obtained.  In  selecting  grasses  for  a  pasture,  those  best 
adapted  to  the  field  to  be  seeded  should  be  chosen.  Thus 
if  the  field  is  low  and  undrained  and  likely  to  be  wet,  the 
principal  grass  of  the  mixture  should  be  one  adapted  to  wet 
soils.  Redtop  usually  forms  the  principal  part  of  such  a 
mixture.  If  the  land  is  lacking  in  lime,  this  element  should 
either  be  supplied  before  seeding,  or  such  grasses  as  grow 
well  on  acid  soils  should  enter  into  the  mixture.  Grasses 
used  as  mixtures  for  hay  should  ripen  at  the  same  time, 
or  some  may  become  dry  and  unpalatable  before  the 
rest  of  the  crop  is  ready  to  cut.  In  seeding  grasses  for  a 
permanent  pasture  that  requires  some  time  to  become 
established,  such  as  Kentucky  blue-grass,  other  quick 
growing  grasses  should  be  seeded  with  it  to  furnish  forage 
until  the  blue-grass  becomes  established.  In  mixtures 
for  pasture,  clovers  may  be  included,  white  clover  being 
desirable  in  almost  all  permanent  pastures.  The  clovers, 
besides  giving  variety  to  the  herbage,  add  nitrogen  to  the 
soil,  making  it  more  productive.  The  adaptations  of  the 


374  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

various  grasses  and  legumes  are  discussed  in  the  chapters 
relating  to  them  and  may  be  consulted  in  making  selections 
of  mixtures  for  hay  or  pasture. 

400.  Testing  the  seed.  —  The  securing  of  a  successful 
stand  of  grasses  and  legumes  depends  largely  upon  the 
quality  of  the  seed  used  in  the  seeding.  Seeds  of  the 
grasses  and  legumes  are  comparatively  expensive,  and 


FIG.  129.  —  Examining  seeds  for  purity. 

failure  to  secure  a  stand  results  not  only  in  the  loss  of  the 
value  of  the  seed,  and  also  perhaps  in  the  loss  of  the  use 
of  the  land  for  some  time,  but  frequently  breaks  up  the 
regular  rotation.  It  is  therefore  important  that  only 
good  seed  be  purchased.  Another  factor  to  consider  in  the 
purchase  of  grass  and  legume  seed  is  its  purity.  Fre- 
quently seeds  of  other  grasses  or  weed  seeds  are  found  in 
commercial  grass  and  legume  seeds.  Few  farmers  de- 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


375 


sire  to  propagate  weeds,  especially  if  they  are  extremely 
troublesome  ones.  To  pay  grass  seed  prices  for  weed  seed 
is  poor  economy,  and  extreme  precautions  should  be  taken 
to  secure  pure,  viable  seed  of  the  variety  desired.  Fre- 
quently as  much  as  10  per  cent  or  more  of  commercial 
grass  or  legume  seed  is  weed  seed.  This,  of  course, 
means  that  with  each  100  pounds  of  seed  purchased,  10 
pounds  are  weeds,  which  results  not  only  in  their  intro- 
duction into  the  pas- 
ture or  meadow,  but 
also  increases  the  actual 
cost  of  the  seeding.  To 
insure  the  purchase  of 
pure  seed,  a  small 
quantity  of  seed  from 
several  dealers,  together 
with  their  prices,  may  be 
secured  for  a  purity  test. 
401.  The  purity  test 
consists  in  separating 
from  a  sample  the  weed 
seed  and  other  foreign 
matter  and  determining 

bv  wPlffht   tbo  Amount      FlG'    13°' ~ Method   of   making    vitality 

test  of  grass  and  legume  seeds. 

of  pure  seed.   Not  more 

than  one  or  two  per  cent  of  foreign  matter  should  be  found 
in  good  seed.  After  a  purity  test,  the  grass  of  legume 
seed  should  be  tested  for  germination.  Many  kinds  of 
grass  seeds  are  frequently  of  poor  vitality.  The  test 
may  be  made  by  using  the  corn  germinator  box,  filling  in 
about  two  inches  with  sand  and  adding  enough  water  to 
thoroughly  moisten  it.  The  grass  seed  may  then  be 
tested  between  or  upon  blotting  paper  placed  upon  the 


376 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


sand.  Large  grass  and  legume  seeds  may  best  be  placed 
between  blotters,  while  small  seeds,  like  those  of  redtop 
and  blue  grass,  are  best  germinated  on  top  of  the  blotter. 
The  sand  in  the  box  serves  as  a  reservoir  to  supply  mois- 
ture to  the  blotter,  thus  keeping  the  seeds  moist.  Exces- 
sive evaporation,  which  results  in  the  rapid  drying  out  of 
the  sand  and  blotter,  may  be  prevented  if  the  box  is  covered 
over  with  a  piece  of  paper.  The  temperature  at  which 
grass  seed  germinates  best  varies  with  the  different  grasses. 
Blue-grass  germinates  best  if  the  temperature  falls  to  40°  F. 
during  some  period  of  the  day  with  a  maximum  tempera- 
ture of  70°.  Legumes  usually  germinate  in  from  6  to  10 
days,  while  grasses  require  a  longer  time,  blue-grass 
requiring  28  days.  The  accompanying  table  gives  the 
temperature,  position  of  seed  in  the  tester,  and  length  of 
time  required  for  the  test : 


KIND  OF  SEED 

POSITION 
IN  TESTER 

TEMPERATURE 

DAYS  REQUIRED 
FOR  GERMINA- 
TION 

Alfalfa  .  .-  .  .  . 

B-B 

20°  C 

6 

Clover,  alsike  ..... 
Clover,  crimson    .... 
Clover,  mammoth    . 
Clover  red 

T-B 
B-B 
B-B 
B-B 

20°  C. 
20°  C. 
20°  C. 
20°  C 

6 

4 
6 
6 

Clover,  white  

T-B 

20°  C. 

6 

Bermuda-grass  .... 
Brome-grass  .  ... 

T-B 
B-B 

20-35°  C. 
20-30°  C 

21 
10 

Blue-grass 

T-B 

20-30°  C 

28 

Meadow  fescue  .... 
Orchard-grass  .... 
Redtop 

B-B 
B-B 
T-B 

20-30°  C. 
20-30°  C. 
20-30°  C 

10 
14 

8 

Rye  grass  
Timothy  

B-B 
T-B 

20-30°  C. 
20-30°  C. 

14 

8 

B-B — between  blotters. 


T-B  —  on  top  of  blotter. 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  377 

After  the  germination  test  has  been  completed,  the 
results  of  both  the  purity  and  germination  tests  may 
be  consulted,  together  with  the  price  lists  of  the  dealers, 
and  a  selection  can  then  be  made.  In  case  it  is  impos- 
sible to  secure  seed  of  good  vitality,  the  rate  of  seeding 
should  be  regulated  according  to  the  percentage  of  viable 
seeds. 

402.  Seeding.  —  The  time,  rate,  and  manner  of  seeding 
has  been  discussed  in  connection  with  several  grasses  and 
legumes   in  preceding   chapters.     In  general,  it  may  be 
said  that  since  grass  and  legume  seeds  are  small,  they 
require  a  firm,  finely  pulverized  seed  bed.     Very  small 
seeds  should  not  be  covered  deeply,  if  at  all,  while  the  large 
seeds  may  be   covered  lightly  with   a  light   harrow  or 
weeder.     The  time  of  seeding  varies  with  the  different 
grasses,  but  usually  they  may  be  seeded  at  any  time  during 
the  growing  season,  late  summer  seeding  almost  always 
giving  good  results,  especially  in  the  corn  belt  states. 

403.  Care   of   grass   lands.  —  In   the   sections    of    the 
country  where  hay  and  pasture  crops  enter  into  the  regular 
rotation,  weeds  frequently  make  a  rank  growth  after  the 
removal  of  the  grain  or  nurse  crop.     Weeds  crowd  the 
young  plants,  compete  with  them  for  the  soil's  moisture, 
and  usually  grow  so  rapidly  as  to  produce  a  dense  shade 
and  retard  the  growth  and  sometimes  kill  out  the  young 
grass  and  legumes.     To  prevent  the  weeds  from  shading 
the  grass  and  also  to  prevent  them  from  seeding,  they 
should  be  cut  with  a  mower  once  or  twice  after  the  nurse 
crop  has  been  removed.     If  this  practice  is  followed  for 
a  few  years,  the  weeds  will  be  prevented  from  seeding  and 
after  a  time  will  be  eradicated  from  the  farm.     Weeds 
allowed  to  seed  year  after  year  soon  become  so  abundant 
as  to  form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  hay  at  harvest 


378  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

time.  This  trouble  may  be  prevented  and  the  fields  freed 
from  meadow  weeds  by  frequent  clipping  after  the  grain 
crop  has  been  removed. 

404.  Pasture  lands  may  also  be  greatly  improved  in 
quality  and  abundance  of  yield  if  clipped  with  the  mower 
two  or  three  times  during  the  season.  Clipping  not  only 
destroys  the  weeds,  but  also  cuts  off  the  dry  grass,  giving 
the  animals  a  better  opportunity  to  graze  upon  the  young 
and  tender  growth.  In  many  permanent  pastures  this 
practice  will  require  that  stones,  shrubs,  and  bushes  be 
removed  from  the  field,  but  the  increased  yield  will  doubt- 
less more  than  pay  for  the  labor  required  in  this  opera- 
tion. Many  permanent  pastures  and  meadows  after 
long  service  become  unproductive.  Mossy  growth  appears, 
large,  bare  patches  become  evident  and  the  grass  grows 
reluctantly.  Such  pastures  have  for  a  long  time  been  in 
need  of  fertilization.  Mossy  growth  is  usually  associated 
with  a  lack  of  lime  in  the  soil,  and  if  upon  testing  with 
litmus  paper,  it  is  found  that  this  element  is  lacking,  it 
should  be  applied  before  further  fertilization  is  attempted. 
The  kind  of  lime  to  apply  will  depend  upon  the  cost  price, 
although  when  ground  limestone  is  available,  it  is  usually 
the  most  convenient  form  to  apply.  From  one-half  to 
two  tons  or  more  of  ground  limestone  per  acre,  depending 
upon  the  acidity  of  the  soil,  may  be  applied  with  profit. 
The  application  may  best  be  made  in  the  fall,  winter,  or 
early  spring.  If  barnyard  manure  is  available,  a  liberal 
application  with  the  manure  spreader  will  greatly  increase 
the  productivity  of  the  pasture  or  meadow.  If  manure 
is  not  available,  or  only  in  small  amounts,  it  may  be 
supplemented  with  commercial  fertilizers.  A  high  grade 
complete  fertilizer  is  perhaps  the  best  for  grass  lands  in 
which  little  or  no  clover  is  growing.  Grasses  require 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  379 

large  amounts  of  nitrogen,  and  unless  clovers  are  growing 
with  them  to  supply  this  element,  they  should  be  applied 
in  the  form  of  a  complete  fertilizer  or  nitrate  of  soda. 
Nitrogenous  fertilizers,  especially  nitrate  of  soda,  should 
be  applied  in  the  spring  after  the  grass  has  started  growth. 
From  100  to  150  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  may 
be  applied  with  good  results  on  impoverished  fields,  and  a 
lesser  amount  on  fields  in  good  condition.  If  a  complete 
fertilizer  is  used,  400  pounds  per  acre  of  a  fertilizer  analyz- 
ing 4  per  cent  nitrogen,  10  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  2 
per  cent  of  potash  is  considered  a  good  application.  Lib- 
eral application  of  barnyard  manure  and  frequent  clipping 
of  pastures  will  greatly  increase  their  productivity,  while 
fertilizers  are  a  necessity  for  continuous  profitable  yields 
of  hay  from  permanent  meadows. 

405.  Temporary  pastures.  —  Frequently  the  permanent 
or  regular  pasture  does  not  supply  the  needs  of  all  of  the 
animals  kept  on  the  farm,  and  quick  growing  temporary 
pasture  may  be  used  to  supplement  it.  The  crop  used  for 
temporary  pastures  will  depend  to  some  extent  upon  the 
animals  for  which  they  are  to  furnish  forage.  Temporary 
pastures  are  perhaps  most  useful  for  hogs  or  sheep.  Rape, 
cowpeas,  soy  beans,  field  peas,  rye  or  wheat  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  A  temporary  pasture  may  be  planned 
that  will  furnish  forage  from  early  spring  to  late  fall  if 
several  small  fields  are  available,  or  if  a  large  one  can 
conveniently  be  divided  by  temporary  fences.  Rye  may 
furnish  pasture  early  in  the  spring  followed  by  field  peas 
alone  or  with  oats,  two  or  three  seedings  of  which  a  few 
weeks  apart  will  furnish  pasture  until  rape,  soy,  beans  or 
cowpeas  are  available.  Thus  a  few  acres  may  afford  pas- 
ture for  a  large  number  of  animals  throughout  the  growing 
season. 


380  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

406.  Substitute  hay  crops.  —  Failure  of  the  regular 
seeding  or  unusual  demands  for  hay  may  require  substitute 
or  supplementary  hay  crops.  Sometimes,  too,  the  mar- 
ket price  of  timothy,  clover,  or  alfalfa  hay  is  such  that 
the  regular  hay  crop  may  be  marketed  with  profit,  a 
substitute  crop  supplying  home  needs.  Such  crops  are 
to  be  found  in  the  field  peas,  alone  or  with  oats,  millets 
and  sorghums.  The  time  and  method  of  seeding  these 
crops  have  been  discussed  in  the  earlier  chapters. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

MARKETING  OF  GRAIN 

THE  marketing  of  grain  or  of  any  other  crop  has  as  its 
basis  the  principle  of  barter  or  trade.  The  producer  trades 
his  crop  or  that  portion  of  it  not  required  for  his  needs 
for  some  other  commodity  which  he  needs  but  does 
not  produce,  or  produces  in  insufficient  quantities.  In 
former  times  the  traders  met  at  a  common  market  place 
at  stated  times  and  there  bartered  their  goods.  Later 
on,  money  as  a  medium  of  exchange  simplified  the  matter 
of  trading  and  made  possible  the  great  specialization  in 
production  which  exists  to-day.  The  yields  of  the  great 
wheat  fields  of  the  Northwest  and  of  the  cotton  plantations 
of  the  South  more  than  supply  the  local  demand,  and  must 
be  marketed  where  these  crops  are  not  produced  or  where 
production  does  not  equal  consumption.  So  it  may  be 
said  that  the  North  supplies  the  cotton  grower  with  a 
considerable  portion  of  his  wheat  flour,  and  in  return 
looks  to  the  cotton  grower  for  the  various  products  of 
the  cotton  fields.  In  this  case,  actual  exchange  of  commod- 
ities has  not  taken  place,  but  the  sale  of  one  crop  for 
money  makes  possible  the  purchase  of  another  or  its  prod- 
ucts. 

The  average  grain  producer  knows  but  little  about  the 
devious  route  taken  by  his  bag  of  grain  after  it  leaves  his 
hands  until  it  reaches  the  ultimate  consumer.  He  should 
know  more  about  the  part  taken  in  the  world's  business 

381 


382 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


by  the  products  of  his  labor  after  it  leaves  his  hands,  and 
hew  it  reaches  and  supplies  the  consumer  through  the 
complicated  system  of  distribution  that  has  been  built  up 
around  it.  A  most  interesting  story  it  is,  if  told  in  detail, 
sometimes  containing  the  element  of  romance  and  not 
infrequently  that  of  tragedy.  We  shall  not  touch  upon 
the  stories  of  fortunes  won  and  lost  in  the  grain  market, 
but  shall  attempt  to  explain  in  a  simple  manner  the 


FIG.  131.  —  A  typical  country  elevator. 

general  working  plan  of  the  great  system  of  grain  market- 
ing, touching  briefly  upon  each  division  of  the  business 
and  the  function  which  it  performs. 

407.  The  country  elevator.  —  The  function  of  the 
country  elevator  is  to  purchase  from  the  farmer  his  surplus 
of  grain  or  hay  and  to  start  it  upon  its  way  to  the  con- 
sumer. Country  elevators  may  sometimes  store  the 
grain  for  a  time,  awaiting  better  shipping  facilities  or  a 
more  favorable  market.  There  are  three  kinds  of  coun- 
try elevators,  based  upon  their  systems  of  management, 


MARKETING   OF  GRAIN  383 

namely,  the  independent,  the  cooperative,  and  the  line 
elevator.  The  independent  elevator  is  one  at  a  country 
shipping  point  owned  and  controlled  by  one  or  more  in- 
dividuals. The  management  of  such  an  elevator  is  inde- 
pendent or  not  connected  with  other  elevators  or  large 
market  centers. 

408.  The  cooperative  elevator  is  one  owned  and  oper- 
ated   by  an  association  of    farmers.     A  cooperative   or 
farmers'  elevator  usually  has  some  advantages  over  other 
elevators  in  the  securing  of  grain  from  the  farmers,  many 
of  whom  are  stockholders  in  the  company  and  share  in  its 
profits.     Sometimes  as  many  as  50  or  100  farmers  around 
a  shipping  point  may  hold  stock  in  such  an  elevator, 
which  insures  for  it  a  large  supply  of  grain.     Many  farmers, 
also,  who  are  not  stockholders  prefer  to  sell  their  grain  to  a 
cooperative  company,  since  it   is   operated   by  farmers, 
preferring  to  do  business  with  farmers  rather  than  inde- 
pendent   dealers    or     line    elevators.     All     cooperative 
elevators  are  not  successful,  however,  as  might  appear 
from  what  has  been  said.     Failure  is  frequently  due  to 
inexperience  of  the  managers  in  business*  affairs,  which 
results  in  poor  management.     Sometimes,  too,  jealousy 
springs  up  between  the  stockholders,  and  this  frequently 
results  in  the  company's  bankruptcy. 

409.  The  line   elevator  differs  from  the    independent 
dealer  and  the  farmers'  company  in  that  it  is  only  one 
elevator  of  many  along  a  certain  line  or  lines  of  railroad, 
and  owned  and  managed  by  a  concern  having  headquarters 
in  one  of  the  large  central  markets.     The  line  elevator  at 
any  one  shipping  point  is  in  charge  of  an  individual  who 
is  employed  by,  and  receives  directions  for  management 
from,  the  headquarters  in  the  central  market.     A  line 
elevator  company,  therefore,  may  control  many  elevators 


384  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION 

along  one  or  more  railroads ;  and  when  their  combined 
receipts  are  considered,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  handle 
immense  quantities  of  grain.  Line  elevators  are  more 
common  in  new  and  comparatively  undeveloped  country 
than  where  farming  has  long  been  in  practice.  They  per- 
form the  useful  function  of  buying  the  producer's  grain  in 
sections  of  the  country  where  independent  dealers  or 
farmers'  companies  have  not  yet  become  established.  A 
prejudice  usually  exists  against  the  line  elevators,  the 
opinion  prevailing  that  they  do  not  pay  the  best  prices, 
and  usually,  as  the  country  develops,  they  come  into 
competition  with  independent  dealers  and  cooperative 
companies.  Many  line  elevators  are,  however,  doing 
successful  business  where  other  companies  exist,  and  are 
most  commonly  found  in  the  West  Central  and  North- 
western States. 

All  three  types  of  country  elevators  perform  essentially 
the  same  function  in  the  grain  trade,  namely  that  of  pur- 
chasing from  the  producer  at  any  time  he  desires  to  sell 
his  surplus  of  grain. 

410.  Terminal  markets.  —  A  few  years  ago  the  sur- 
plus grain  of  a  community  was  usually  sold  to  the  local 
mill,  but  with  the  improvement  of  shipping  facilities, 
there  have  developed  a  centralization  of  storage  elevators, 
mills  and  places  of  marketing,  and  now  only  the  smaller 
mills  depend  entirely  upon  the  local  supply  of  grain, 
almost  all  large  mills  buying  additional  amounts  of  it 
needed  for  their  mill  at  the  terminal  markets. 

Grain  purchased  by  country  elevators  is  usually  shipped 
to  the  terminal  or  primary  market.  Such  markets  are 
located  in  large  cities  of  easy  access  by  rail  or  boat  from 
the  sources  of  production.  At  the  terminal  markets,  the 
country  elevator  men  or  their  representatives  meet  the 


MARKETING   OF  GRAIN  385 

exporters,   millers,    and   others   who   desire   to   purchase 
large  quantities  of  grain.     Such  terminal  markets  of  the 


FIG.  132.  —  A  terminal  elevator  in  Chicago  located  so  as  to  ship  grain 
by  rail  or  boat. 

grain  trade  are  located  in  Chicago,  Minneapolis,  Duluth, 
St.  Louis,  Toledo,  and  other  points. 

411.    Terminal  elevators.  —  Terminal   elevators,  which 
2c 


386  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

are  located  at  the  large  terminal  markets,  have  immense 
storage  capacity  and  are  usually  located  so  as  to  be  able 
to  receive  or  ship  grain  both  by  rail  and  by  boat.  The 
operators  of  these  elevators  usually  carry  on  two  distinct 
lines  of  business.  They  rent  storage  room  to  country 
dealers  or  others  who  have  grain  they  wish  to  store,  and 
they  act  as  brokers,  buying  grain  and  reselling  it.  In  this 
line  of  business  they  may  either  resell  immediately  or  very 
soon  after  buying,  or  they  may  store  the  grain  for  a  time, 
awaiting  a  more  favorable  opportunity  to  sell.  The 
terminal  elevators  frequently  mix  large  quantities  of  grain 
of  high  grade  with  small  quantities  of  poor  grain,  the  mix- 
ing being  such  as  not  to  reduce  the  grade  of  the  former. 
This  operation  is  one  of  the  sources  of  profit. 

412.  Grain  inspection.  —  Buyers  of  grain  at  the  ter- 
minal markets  buy  it  in  such  large  quantities,  sometimes 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  bushels,  that  it  is  neither  possi- 
ble nor  desirable  for  them  to  personally  inspect  each  car 
of  grain  they  purchase.  Since  grain  varies  greatly  in 
quality,  and  since  the  quality  has  a  direct  relation  to  the 
value  of  it,  it  is  desirable  that  the  purchaser  as  well  as  the 
seller  have  some  means  of  determining  the  quality  of  a 
certain  lot  of  grain  without  personally  inspecting  it.  This 
is  made  possible  by  a  system  of  grain  inspection  in  which 
a  lot  of  grain  arriving  at  the  terminal  market  is  inspected 
and  given  a  grade  by  official  inspectors.  The  grades  are 
so  defined  that  the  purchaser  knows  in  a  general  way  the 
quality  of  the  grain  as  determined  by  plumpness,  hardness, 
presence  of  foreign  matter,  weight  per  bushel,  and  other 
qualities  of  importance  in  estimating  its  value.  There 
are  usually  four  distinct  grades.  The  method  of  de- 
scribing the  grades  may  be  gained  from  the  following 
description  of  the  grades  of  hard  winter  wheat : 


MARKETING   OF  GRAIN  387 

No.  1  Hard  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  pure, 
hard  winter  wheat,  sound,  plump,  dry,  sweet,  and  well  cleaned, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  61  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Hard  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard 
winter  wheat,  of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  dry,  sound,  sweet, 
and  clean,  and  weigh  not  less  than  59  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

No.  3  Hard  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard 
winter  wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  not  clean  and  plump 
enough  for  No.  2  and  weigh  not  less  than  56  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Hard  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard 
winter  wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors.  It  may  be  damp, 
musty,  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  pounds  to  the  meas- 
ured bushel. 

Similar  grades  are  described  for  the  other  classes  of 
wheat  and  also  for  the  other  grains.  Sometimes  grain 
reaches  the  terminal  market  in  such  poor  condition  that 
it  is  not  given  a  grade,  but  is  sold  by  sample,  in  which  case 
a  small  sample  is  sent  to  the  trading  floor  so  that  the  pur- 
chaser may  see  it  before  making  the  purchase. 

413.  Methods  of  inspection.  —  Two  systems  of  grain 
inspection  are  in  practice  at  terminal  markets.  "  Track 
inspection  "  is  the  inspecting  and  grading  of  the  grain  at 
the  car  in  the  railroad  yards  or  on  the  boat.  A  sample  is 
taken  from  the  car  or  boat,  and  the  inspector,  after  examin- 
ing it  and  determining  the  weight  per  bushel,  gives  the 
grain  a  grade.  The  inspector  records  in  a  book  or  on  a 
card  the  number  of  the  car  and  the  name  of  the  dealer  to 
whom  consigned,  together  with  the  grade  he  has  given  it. 
Track  inspection  is  not  always  satisfactory,  since  the 
inspector  is  likely  to  be  influenced  in  his  judgment  by  ex- 
tremes of  weather,  such  as  severe  heat  or  cold,  and  when 
in  doubt  as  to  the  grade  of  a  certain  lot,  he  has  no  one  to 
consult  or  to  check  up  his  work.  Track  inspection  for 


388 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


this  reason  is  in  many  of  the  markets  being  replaced  by 
"  office  inspection."  In  office  inspection  samples  of  grain 
to  be  inspected  are  collected  from  the  cars,  boats,  or  ware- 
houses and  taken  to  the  office,  where  a  corps  of  inspectors, 
working  under  uniform  conditions,  determine  the  grade. 
In  this  system  of  inspection,  the  collectors  are  divided 
into  groups,  the  number  of  the  collectors  in  each  group 


FIG.  133.  —  Inspecting  grain  in  the  room  of  the  Illinois  State  Grain  In- 
spection Department  at  Chicago. 

being  in  proportion  to  the  grain  received  by  the  railroad 
or  dock  to  which  they  are  assigned.  Each  group  is  usually 
placed  in  charge  of  a  chief  sampler,  who  is  held  responsible 
for  the  performance  of  the  men  in  his  charge.  Usually 
two-quart  samples  are  taken  from  several  parts  of  the  car ; 
the  sample  is  then  bagged  and  together  with  the  name  of 
the  railroad,  the  number  of  the  car  and  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  consigned,  it  is  sent  to  the  office  for  inspection. 
If  the  car  is  "  plugged,"  that  is,  contains  grain  of  inferior 
quality  in  the  bottom  or  in  one  end  of  the  car  and  which 


MARKETING   OF  GRAIN  389 

is  covered  over  with  grain  of  better  quality,  more  samples 
are  taken  in  order  to  get  as  near  as  possible  a  composite 
sample  representative  of  the  car  as  a  whole. 

414.  Samples  are  taken  with  a  long,  hollow  tube  with 
holes  regularly  arranged  along  the  side.     A  plunger  fits 
into  the  tube,   closing  up  the  openings  along  the  side. 
In  taking  a  sample,  the  tube  is  pushed  down  into  the  grain 
and  the  plunger  is  then  removed.     This  allows  the  grain 
to  run  into  the  tube  through  the  holes  in  the  side,  and  thus 
a  sample  is  obtained  containing  grain  from  various  depths 
in  the  car.     If  the  car  is  damaged  or  leakage  has  occurred, 
the  collector  notes  the  amount  lost  and  the  condition  of  the 
car,  which  information  is  of  use  to  the  owner  in  an  attempt 
to  collect  damages  from  the  railroad.     The  grade  given  a 
sample  of  grain  by  the  inspectors  is  used  as  a  basis  for 
sale.     If  the  shipper  is  not  satisfied  with  the  grade  given 
by  the  inspectors,  he  may  appeal  the  decision  to  a  board  of 
arbitration  made  up   usually  of  members  of  the  grain 
exchange.     This  board  has  the  power  to  regrade  the  sam- 
ple, their  decision  being  final. 

415.  Methods    of    sale.  —  At    the    terminal    markets 
there  are  usually  organized  grain  exchanges,  which  are 
organizations  of  individuals  interested  in  the  sale  or  pur- 
chase of  grain,  who  meet  regularly  for  the  transaction  of 
business.     The  place  of  meeting  for  the  transaction  of 
sales  is  usually  called  the  "  floor  "  or  the  "  pit."     Men 
who  have  grain  to  sell  or  who  desire  to  purchase  may  go 
on  the  floor  in  person  if  they  are  members  of  the  exchange. 
More  frequently,  however,  sales  are  made  through  com- 
mission men.     Commission  men  are  persons  who  act  as 
agents  for  the  seller  or  buyer,  and  receive  as  their  com- 
pensation a  stipulated  commission,  usually  1  to  3  per  cent 
of  the   cash  value  of  the  transaction.     The  amount   a 


390  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

commission  man  is  able  to  earn  depends,  therefore,  upon 
the  volume  of  his  business. 

Country  elevators  usually  sell  their  grain  through  com- 
mission men.  Line  elevator  companies  who  sell  in  large 
amounts  may  make  their  sales  through  a  member  of  the 
firm  who  is  a  member  of  the  exchange.  Millers  usually 
purchase  their  supply  of  grain  either  direct  from  large 
country  elevators  or .  through  a  commission  man  on  the 
floor  of  the  exchange  at  the  terminal  market. 

416.  Kinds  of  contracts.  —  There  are  three  kinds  of 
contracts  for  straight  sales  on  the  floor  of  most  grain 
exchanges.  The  "  to  arrive  "  contract,  which  is  made 
largely  with  country  elevators,  is  that  made  with  the 
understanding  that  the  grain  will  arrive  within  15  days 
from  the  date  of  the  transaction.  The  "  to  arrive  " 
contract  is  the  usual  method  of  selling  carload  lots, 
although  line  elevators  often  do  not  sell  each  car  sepa- 
rately, sometimes  selling  "  round  lots  to  arrive,"  which 
may  mean  from  10  to  100  thousand  bushels.  Country 
dealers,  when  a  car  of  grain  is  started  on  its  way  to  the 
terminal  market,  wire  or  write  their  representative  to  sell 
for  them  "  to  arrive  "  a  stipulated  amount  of  a  certain 
grade  of  grain.  Sometimes  the  country  dealer  has  reason 
to  believe  that  the  price  of  grain  may  advance  by  the  time 
the  car  reaches  its  destination,  in  which  case  the  com- 
mission man  is  instructed  to  sell  "  on  track."  This 
means  that  the  grain  at  the  time  of  the  sale  is  in  the  rail- 
road yards  of  the  terminal  market.  Delivery  is  made  by 
giving  to  the  purchaser  the  bill  of  lading.  If  upon  arrival 
of  the  grain  at  the  terminal  market  the  country  dealer 
desires  to  await  a  more  favorable  market,  the  grain  may 
be  stored  in  one  of  the  terminal  elevators,  for  which  a 
storage  charge  is  made.  In  almost  all  states  all  public 


MARKETING   OF  GRAIN  391 

elevators  are  required  by  law  to  receive  grain  for  storage 
at  a  uniform  storage  charge  as  long  as  available  storage 
room  remains.  The  country  dealer  may  keep  his  grain 
in  store  as  long  as  the  storage  charges  are  paid.  When 
he  desires  to  sell,  his  representative  on  the  floor  sells  on 
the  "  in  store "  contract,  and  makes  the  delivery  by 
turning  over  to  the  purchaser  the  warehouse  receipts. 
Of  the  three  kinds  of  contracts,  the  "  to  arrive  "  and 
"on  track "  are  most  often  used  by  the  country  dealer 
in  disposing  of  his  grain. 

417.  Systems  of  credit.  —  Farmers  usually  demand 
cash  payments  from  the  country  elevator  at  the  time  of 
delivery.  If  the  grain  dealer  must  wait  until  he  resells 
the  grain  on  the  permanent  market,  a  large  working 
capital  is  necessary,  since  it  may  be  two  weeks  or  even 
longer  before  he  is  able  to  secure  returns  from  it.  At 
harvest  time,  and  at  other  times  when  much  grain  is 
being  received  at  the  country  elevator,  the  dealer  may  have 
a  large  amount  of  money  invested  in  grain  on  the  way 
to  the  market.  In  order  to  reduce  the  necessary  working 
capital  of  the  country  elevator  man,  there  often  exists 
between  the  dealer  and  his  representative  at  the  terminal 
market  a  system  of  credit  in  which  the  country  dealer 
takes  the  bill  of  lading  to  which  is  attached  a  draft  drawn 
against  the  commission  man,  to  the  local  bank  and  re- 
ceives credit  for  the  amount  of  the  draft.  The  amount 
of  the  draft  in  relation  to  the  value  of  the  grain  depends 
upon  the  agreement  established  beforehand  between  the 
commission  man  and  his  customer.  In  a  steady  market 
sometimes  he  will  allow  the  country  dealer  to  draw  upon  him 
for  as  much  as  80  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  shipped  grain. 
Thus,  if  the  country  dealer  has  shipped  grain  valued  at 
a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  he  may,  by  this  system  of 


392  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

credit,  immediately  have  made  available  $80,000  for  the 
purchase  of  more  grain.  When  the  grain  arrives,  the 
amount  of  the  draft,  together  with  the  commission  charges, 
is  deducted  from  the  gross  receipt  from  the  sale.  The 
system  of  credit  existing  between  the  country  dealer  and 
the  commission  merchant  is  a  valuable  service  to  the  coun- 
try dealer. 

418.  Price  of  grain.  —  Country  elevators   usually  re- 
ceive by  mail  each  morning  prices  of  grain  from  the  ter- 
minal market,  or  if  a  sudden  change  occurs,  they  may 
receive  the  new  quotation  by  wire  from  their  representa- 
tive.    The  price  offered  for  grain  at  the  country  elevator 
is   based   upon   the  price   prevailing   at   the   permanent 
market.     In  quoting  prices  to  local  sellers,  the  country 
dealer  deducts  from  the  terminal  market  price  the  cost 
of  freight,  the  commission  charges,  a  reasonable  margin 
which  differs  with  the  different  grains  according  to  the 
amount  of  risk  run  in  handling  them,  and  a  fair  profit, 
including   cost   of   operating   the   local   elevator.     Thus, 
if  the  freight  cost  to  the  primary  market  is  3  cents  per 
bushel,  the  commission  charge  1  cent,  and  the  margin 
and  profit  and  cost  of  operation  5  cents  per  bushel,  the 
price  offered  by  the  local  dealer  will  be  9  cents  less  than 
the  price  at  the  terminal  market. 

419.  Prices  at  the  terminal  market.  —  Prices  of  grain 
that  prevail  at  the  terminal  market  are  dependent  upon 
several  factors,  chief   among  which  are :    the  favorable- 
ness  of  weather  and  other   conditions   for   growing   the 
world's  crop,  the  probable  yield,  the  supply  and  demand 
of  importing  countries  and  the  yield  and  prevailing  price 
of  substitute  crops.     All  of  these  factors  have  an  appre- 
ciable  influence   upon   the   prevailing   prices.     Weather, 
insects,  and  diseases  play  no  small  part  in  establishing 


MARKETING   OF  GRAIN  393 

the  market  price  of  a  crop.  So  important  are  these  facts 
that  some  commission  and  brokerage  houses  employ 
experts  to  make  a  canvass  of  the  principal  producing  areas 
of  the  crops  in  which  they  are  interested,  sometimes 
sending  them  into  foreign  lands.  Most  commission  firms, 
however,  depend  upon  government  weather  and  crop 
reports  and  other  information  which  they  frequently 


FIG.  134.  —  An  elevator  and  concrete  storage  bins  at  Baltimore,  Md. 
Grain  is  exported  from  here. 

receive  from  country  elevators  throughout  the  country. 
The  crop  reporting  system  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  very 
complete,  by  which  reports  are  received  from  all  parts 
of  the  country  from  representatives  or  agents  of  the 
bureau.  Some  50,000  agents  and  representatives  are 
employed  in  collecting  and  sending  to  the  Department 
these  crops  reports.  The  information  thus  received  is 
issued  to  the  public  in  monthly  crop  reports.  From  the 


894  FIELD   CROP   PRODUCTION 

several  sources  of  information  grain  dealers  are  usually 
able  to  tell  with  unusual  certainty  the  possible  and  prob- 
able yields  from  leading  crops.  How  all  of  the  factors 
mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph  may  affect 
market  price  of  the  grain  crops  cannot  be  explained  here. 
Each,  however,  has  some  influence  upon  the  ever  changing 
market  quotations. 


FIG.   135.  —  Unloading  grain  at  a  Danish  port. 

420.  Export  trade.  —  The  exporter  of  grain  usually 
has  headquarters  at  one  of  the  seaboard  markets,  such 
as  Baltimore  or  New  York.  He  may  buy  grain  on  the 
floor  of  the  local  exchange,  from  commission  men  repre- 
senting large  dealers  in  the  Middle  West,  or  he  may  go  in 
person  to  the  terminal  markets  of  the  Middle  West  and 
buy  his  grain,  or  he  may  secure  it  through  his  represent- 
ative there.  Some  exporters  have  headquarters  at  the 


MARKETING   OF  GRAIN  395 

terminal  instead  of  the  seaboard  markets.  The  exporter 
sells  abroad  through  a  commission  man  on  the  floor  of 
foreign  exchanges.  In  the  purchase  of  grain  for  export, 
the  shipper  must  consider  the  cost  of  the  grain  at  the  sea- 
board, storage,  insurance  on  the  boat,  freight  charges, 
and  the  market  price  at  the  foreign  market. 


APPENDIX 

A  BRIEF  LIST   OF  REFERENCES 

Cereals  in  America HUNT 

Corn  Crop MONTGOMERY 

Corn BOWMAN  &  CROSSLEY 

The  Study  of  Corn SHOESMITH 

Wheat DOUDLINGER 

The  Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat EDGAR 

Forages  and  Fiber  Crops HUNT 

Grasses SPILLMAN 

Meadows  and  Pastures WING 

Forage  Crops VOORHEES 

Alfalfa COBURN 

Clovers * SHAW 

The  Book  of  Grasses FRANCIS 

Cotton BURKET 

From  the  Cotton  Field  to  the  Cotton  Mill    .     .     .       THOMPSON 

Hemp BOYCE 

The  Potato FRASER 

The  Potato GRUBB 

Corn  Plants .     SARGENT 

Plants  and  Their  Uses SARGENT 

Agricultural  Botany PERCIVAL 

Botany  for  Secondary  Schools BAILEY 

Plant  Physiology DUGGAR 

Manures  and  Fertilizers WHEELER 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility VIVIAN 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture      ....     HOPKINS 

Plant-Breeding BAILEY 

Genetics WALTER 

Southern  Field  Crops DUGGAR 

Field  Crops WILSON  AND  WARBURTON 

397 


398  FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 

Broom-corn  Culture McCALL 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life LIPMAN 

Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants DUGGAR 

Plant  Diseases STEVENS  AND  HALL 

Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops SANDERSON 

Produce   Exchanges  —  Annals  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Sciences,  September,  1911. 

Weeds  of  Farm  and  Garden PAMMEL 

Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  II BAILEY 

Laboratory  Manual  of  Cereal  and  Forage  Crops 

LIVINGSTON  AND  YODER 

A  Laboratory  Manual  of  Agriculture  .  .  CALL  AND  SCHAFER 
Bulletins  of  Dominion  of  Canada  Experimental  Farms,  Ottawa. 
Bulletins  of  State  Experiment  Station. 

Bulletins  and  Year  Book  of  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

These  books  may  be  obtained  through  most  bookstores  and 
publishing  houses. 

A  list  of  the  various  state  experiment  stations  together  with 
the  post  office  is  given  below.  Students  or  instructors  may  usu- 
ally secure  from  the  director  of  the  station  a  list  of  available 
bulletins  from  which  he  may  select  the  ones  desired.  Such  a  list 
may  also  be  secured  from  the  Bureau  of  Publications,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. 


APPENDIX 


399 


AMERICAN  AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENT 
STATIONS 

Address  Experiment  Station  at  Post  Office  given. 


ALABAMA  — 

College  Station :   Auburn 

Canebrake  Station :     Union- 
town. 

Tuskegee  Station :   Tuskegee. 
ALASKA  —  Sitka. 
ARIZONA  —  Tucson. 
ARKANSAS  —  Fayetteville. 
CALIFORNIA  —  Berkeley. 
CANADA  —  Ottawa. 
COLORADO  —  Fort  Collins. 
CONNECTICUT  — 

State  Station  :  New  Haven. 

Storrs  Station :   Storrs. 
DELAWARE  —  Newark. 
FLORIDA  —  Lake  City. 
GEORGIA  —  Experiment. 
HAWAII  — 

Federal  Station :   Honolulu. 

Sugar      Planters'      Station : 

Honolulu. 
IDAHO  —  Moscow. 
ILLINOIS  —  Urbana. 
INDIANA:  Lafayette. 
IOWA  —  Ames. 
KANSAS  —  Manhattan. 
KENTUCKY  —  Lexington. 
LOUISIANA  — 

State  Station  :    Baton  Rouge. 

Sugar  Station :  Audubon  Park, 
New  Orleans. 

North     Louisiana     Station : 

Calhoun. 

MAINE  —  Orono. 
MARYLAND  —  College  Park. 
MASSACHUSETTS  —  Amherst. 
MICHIGAN  —  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

MINNESOTA    —    St.     Anthony 
Park,  St.  Paul. 


MISSISSIPPI  —  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 
MISSOURI  — 

College  Station :  Columbia. 

Fruit     Station :      Mountain 

Grove. 

MONTANA  —  Bozeman. 
NEBRASKA  —  Lincoln. 
NEVADA  —  Reno. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE  —  Durham. 
NEW  JERSEY  —  New  Bruns- 
wick. 

NEW  MEXICO  —  Mesilla  Park. 
NEW  YORK  — 

State  Station :    Geneva. 

Cornell  Station :   Ithaca. 
NORTH  CAROLINA  —  Raleigh. 
NORTH  DAKOTA  —  Agricultural 

College. 

OHIO  —  Wooster. 
OKLAHOMA  —  Stillwater. 
ONTARIO  :  Guelph. 
OREGON  —  Corvallis. 
PENNSYLVANIA  —  State  College. 
PORTO  Rico  —  Mayaguez. 
RHODE  ISLAND  —  Kingston. 
SOUTH      CAROLINA  —  Clemson 

College. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA  —  Brookings. 
TENNESSEE  —  Knoxville. 
TEXAS  —  College  Station. 
UTAH  —  Logan. 
VERMONT  —  Burlington. 
VIRGINIA  —  Blacksburg. 
WASHINGTON  —  Pullman. 
WEST  VIRGINIA — Morgantown. 
WISCONSIN  —  Madison. 
WYOMING  —  Laramie. 


400 


FIELD   CROP  PRODUCTION 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  FIELD  CROPS  AND  THEIR 
PRODUCTS 

(Adapted  from  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding) 


PROTEIN 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

NITROGEN 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

ETHER 
EXTRACT 

Alfalfa 

143 

250 

42  7 

22 

Barley,  grain  .... 

12.4 

2  7 

698 

1  8 

Barley,  straw    
Barley,  brewers'  grain  (dry)     . 
Barley,  malt  sprouts 
Barley,  hay  (cut  in  milk)     .     . 
Broom-corn  seed   

3.5 
19.9 
23.2 

8.8 
10.2 

36.0 
11.0 
10.7 
24.7 
7.1 

39.0 
51.7 

48.5 
44.9 
63.6 

1.5 
5.6 
1.7 
2.4 
30 

Buckwheat  
Buckwheat  straw 

10.0 
5.2 

8.7 
43.0 

64.5 
35.1 

2.2 
1  3 

Carrot  
Clover  red 

1.1 

12.4 

1.3 
21  9 

7.6 

388 

0.4 
45 

Clover,  mammoth  .... 
Clover,  alsike  
Clover,  white  
Clover,  crimson  
Clover  Japan 

10.7 
12.8 
15.7 
15.2 
13.8 

24.5 
25.6 
24.1 
27.2 
24.0 

33.6 
40.7 
39.3 
36.6 
39.0 

3.9 
2.9 
2.9 

2.8 
3.7 

Corn,  dent  
Corn  flint 

10.3 
10.5 

2.2 

1  7 

70.4 
70.1 

5. 
5 

Corn,  gluten  meal  .... 
Corn  gluten  feed 

29.3 
240 

3.3 
53 

46.5 
51.2 

11.8 
106 

Corn,  stover  
Corn,  fodder  (green)  .... 
Corn,  silage  ...  . 

3.8 
1.8 
1.7 

19.7 
5.0 
6.0 

31.5 
12.2 
11.0 

1.1 

0.5 
0.8 

Cotton  seed 

184 

232 

247 

199 

Cotton  seed  meal 

42.3 

5.6 

23.6 

13.1 

Cotton  seed  hulls  
Cowpea 

4.2 

208 

46.3 
4  1 

33.4 
55.7 

2.2 
1.4 

Cowpea  hay  

16.6 

20.1 

42.2 

2.2 

Flax  seed 

22  6 

7  1 

23.2 

33.7 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 
Kafir  corn  seed 

33.2 
99 

9.5 
1  4 

38.4 

74  9 

3.0 
3.0 

Kentucky  blue-grass  .... 
Mangel 

7.8 
1  4 

23.0 
09 

37.8. 
5.5 

3.9 
0.2 

APPENDIX 


401 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  FIELD  CROPS  AND  THEIR 
PRODUCTS  —  Continued 


PROTEIN 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

NITROGEN 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

ETHER 
EXTRACT 

IVIeadow  fescue 

70 

25.9 

38.4 

2.7 

Millet  seed  

11.8 

9.5 

57.4 

4.0 

Millet  hay  (Hungarian)  .  .  . 
Oats  .... 

7.5 
11.8 

27.7 
9.5 

49.0 
59.7 

2.0 
5.0 

Oat  straw  
Oat  hay  (cut  in  milk)  .  .  . 
Orchard-  grass  

4.0 
9.3 

7.9 

37.0 
29.2 

28.6 

42.4 
39.0 
47.5 

2.3 
2.3 
1.9 

Peanuts  (hulled) 
Potato                          .... 

27.9 
2.1 

7.0 
0.6 

15.6 
17.3 

39.6 
0.1 

Redtop  . 
Rice  
Rice  hulls  
Rice  polish  
Rye  .  

8.0 
7.4 
3.6 
11.7 
10  6 

29.9 
0.2 
35.7 
6.3 
1.7 

46.4 
79.2 
38.6 
58.0 
72.5 

2.1 
0.4 
0.7 
7.3 
1.7 

Rye  straw  
Rye  grass,  perennial  .... 
Rye  grass,  Italian  .... 
Sorghum  seed 

3.0 
10.1 
7.5 
9  1 

38.9 
25.4 
30.5 
2  6 

46.6 
40.5 
45.0 
69.8 

1.2 
2.1 
1.7 
3.6 

Sorghum  silage  

0.8 

6.4 

15.3 

0.3 

Soy  bean 

340 

48 

288 

169 

Soy  bean  hay  .  .... 

154 

22.3 

386 

5.2 

Sugar  beet  
Timothy  hay  (in  full  bloom)  . 
Turnip  
Vetch  hay 

1.8 
6.0 
1.1 
170 

0.9 
29.6 
1.2 
254 

9.8 
41.9 
6.2 
36.1 

0.1 
3.0 
0.2 
23 

Wheat,  spring  

12.5 

1.8 

71.2 

2.2 

Wheat,  winter  .     .     .     .     .     . 
Wheat,  high  grade  flour  .     .     . 
Wheat,  low  grade  flour  . 
Wheat,  bran      

11.8 
14.9 
18.0 
154 

1.8 
0.3 
0.9 
90 

72.0 
70.0 
63.3 
53.9 

2.1 
2.0 
3.9 
4.0 

Wheat,  middlings  .... 
Wheat,  shorts  
Wheat,  straw  

15.6 
14.9 
3.4 

4.6 

7.4 
38.1 

60.4 
56.8 
43.4 

4.0 
4.5 
1.3 

2D 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

CHAPTER   I 

I.  Why  is  the  classification  of  plants  of  interest  to  the  student 
of  farm  crops  ?     What  is  a  species,  variety,  genus,  family,  order, 
cla  ss  and  division  ? 

II.  Discuss  some  of  the  variations  found  within  the  plant 
kingdom,  in  regard  to    (a)   size,    (6)   structure,    (c)  habitation, 
(rf)  food  requirements,  (e)  usefulness  to  man  of  the  various  plants. 

III.  How  may  one  determine  the  proper  classification  of  an 
individual  plant?     How  does  the  botanical  name  assist  one  in 
identification  ? 

IV.  How  may  plants  be  classified  with  respect  to  their  length 
of  life,  their  usefulness  to  man  and  their  culture  ?     What  are 
field  crops,  and  how  may  they  be  classified?     Name  several 
members  of  each  group.     Discuss  the  relative  importance  of 
each  group  of  field  crops. 

CHAPTER   II 

I.  (a)  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "  rotation  of  crops  "  ? 
(6)  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "  continuous  culture  "  ? 

II.  Compare  yields  of  wheat  obtained  from  rotation  and  con- 
tinuous culture  at  Rothamsted.     The  same  for  barley. 

III.  What  effect  has  continuous  culture  had  upon  the  yield 
of  corn  at  the  Illinois  Station  ?     At  the  Ohio  Station  ? 

IV.  Compare  results  obtained  at  the  Ohio  Station  with  corn 
and   wheat   fertilized    and   unfertilized  in  continuous  culture. 
Make  same  comparison  in  rotation  culture. 

V.  Why  do  rotations  of  crops  give  better  yields  than  con- 
tinuous culture?     Give  six  reasons. 

VI.  What  factors  must  be  considered  in  planning  a  rotation  ? 

VII.  Does  rotation  alone  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil? 
Why? 

VIII.  Give  eight  rotations  commonly  recommended. 

403 


404  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 


CHAPTER   III 

I.  What  evidences  have  we  that  corn  is  a  native  of  the  western 
hemisphere  ? 

II.  How  does  the  corn  plant  differ  from  and  what  characters 
has  it  in  common  with  the  other  cereals  ?     To  what  great  family 
of  plants  does  it  belong  ? 

III.  What  is  the  function  of  the  three  groups  of  roots  possessed 
by  the  corn  plant  ?     At  what  time  in  the  life  of  the  plant  is  each 
of  them  most  useful  ?     What  factors  influence  the  extent  of  the 
root  system  ?     Does  deep  planting  insure  a  deep  root  system  ? 

IV.  What   factors   influence    the   growth    of    the    stem?     Is 
the  height  of  the  stem  constant  for  a  variety  or  type  of  corn  ? 

V.  How  many  growing  leaves  does  one  find  on  a  medium-size 
plant?     What  percentage  of  the  total  dry  weight  at  maturity 
is  leaf  ? 

•  VI.  How  do  the  flowers  of  the  corn  plant  differ  from  those  of 
wheat  and  barley?  Describe  the  flowers  of  corn,  as  to  their 
structure  and  position.  What  are  the  silks,  and  what  functions 
do  they  perform?  Why  are  there  always  an  even  number  of 
rows  on  an  ear?  In  what  part  of  the  ear  are  the  first  kernels 
formed?  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "cross-pollination"? 
What  provision  has  been  made  to  render  self-pollination  difficult 
in  the  corn  plant?  What  weather  conditions  may  influence 
pollination  ? 

VII.  How  many  ears  are  normally  produced  on  a  stalk  of  corn 
in    your    section?     When    two    ears    are    produced,  which  one 
develops  first  ?     What  factors  may  influence  the  number  of  ears 
produced  on  a  stalk  ? 

VIII.  What  are  the  stages  in  the  development  of  the  kernel  ? 
Draw  on  the  blackboard  a  cross  section  of  a  corn  kernel  showing 
the  arrangement  and  the  relative  proportion  of  parts.     What 
are  the  common  colors  of  corn  kernels?     Where  is  the  color 
pigment  located  ? 

IX.  What  can  you  say  of  the  ancestry  of  the  corn  plant? 
What  significance  has  the  occasional  variation  one  finds  in  the 
corn  fields  ?     Can  you  secure  a  number  of  variations  and  explain 
their  probable  significance  ? 

X.  Draw  on  the  board  a  cross  section  of  a  kernel  of  each  type 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  405 

of  corn  showing  the  characteristic  shape,  proportion  and  arrange- 
ment of  parts.  How  do  the  different  types  of  corn  get  their 
names?  Where  is  each  type  grown,  and  how  do  you  account 
for  this  distribution?  Discuss  the  usefulness  and  importance 
of  each  type. 

XI.  What  are  the  important  uses  of  corn?     Name  several 
manufactured  products  made  from  it.     What  is  gluten  feed  and 
gluten  meal  ? 

XII.  What  is  the  average  annual  world's  production  of  corn 
for  the  four  years  1908  to  1912  ?     At  current  market  prices  what 
is  its  value?      What  are  the  leading  corn-producing  countries 
of  the  world  ?     In  what  ways  may  an  increase  in  production  be 
brought  about?     What  is  meant   by   the   term   "corn  belt" 
states  ?     What  is  the  average  yield  per  acre  in  the  United  States  ? 
In  the  corn  belt  ?     In  your  state  ?     In  your  county  ? 

XIII.  What  soils  and  climates  are  suitable  for  growing  corn  ? 
What  are  the  principal  factors  that  limit  the  production  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  United  States  ? 

CHAPTER   IV 

I.  When  does  corn  do  best  in  the  rotation  ?     What  can  you 
say  of  the  practice  of  continuous  culture?     What  kinds  of  soil 
may  usually  be  profitably  fertilized  for  corn  ?     How  should  the 
fertilizer  be  applied  ? 

II.  What  are  the  benefits  derived  from  plowing?     What  are 
the  special  advantages  of  fall  plowing?     What  can  you  say  of 
late  spring  plowing  ? 

III.  How  would  you  prepare  a  seed  bed  on  fall  plowed  land  ? 
On  spring  plowed  land?     What  can  you  say  of  the  use  of  the 
roller  in  preparing  a  seed  bed  ? 

IV.  What  does  the  farmer  mean  by  the  term  a  "  stand  of 
corn  "  ?     What  is  a  perfect  stand,  and  what  factors  must  the 
farmer  overcome  to  secure  it  ?     Make  a  germinating  box  and 
carry  through  a  germination  test  of  several  ears  of  corn.     Ex- 
plain the  precautions  necessary  to  take  in  order  to  secure  a  useful 
test. 

V.  What  can  you  say  of  the  practice  of  grading  seed  corn  ? 

VI.  Discuss  early  versus  late  planting  of  corn. 

VII.  Discuss  deep  versus  shallow  planting  of  corn. 


406  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

VIII.  Upon  what  factors  does  the  rate  of  planting  depend  ? 
How  does  the  corn  plant  adapt  itself  to  a  given  rate  of  planting  ? 
What  factors  must  be  considered  in  determining  whether  to  drill 
or  hill  the  corn  ? 

IX.  What  is  the  purpose  of  cultivation  ?      Under  what  condi- 
tions may  the  weeder  or  harrow  be  useful  in  the  cultivation  of 
corn?     Discuss   deep   versus   shallow   cultivation.     Upon   what 
does  the  frequency  of  cultivation  depend  ? 

X.  What  different  methods  are  employed  in  harvesting   the 
corn  crop  in  the  United  States?     When  should  corn  be  cut  for 
the  shock  ?     For  the  silo  ?     Do  you  think  "  hogging  off  "  of  corn 
is  a  good  method  of  harvesting  ? 

XI.  About  how  much  moisture  is  there  in  ear  corn  at  harvest 
time?     A  year  after  harvesting?     Upon  what  factors  does  the 
amount    of    moisture    depend?     When    is    there    the    greatest 
shrinkage  of  corn  in  store?     What  sort  qf  storage  should  be 
provided  for  ear  corn  ? 

XII.  In  what  two  ways  may  the  production  of  corn  be  in- 
creased?    Which  do  you  consider  the  more  important?     How 
would  you  conduct  a  variety  test  ?    What  is  the  practical  value  of 
it  ?     Is  it  a  good  practice  to  import  seed  corn  from  other  states  ? 

XIII.  What  methods  of  seed  selection  are  now  in  practice  ? 
Which  is  the  best  method  ?     Why  ?     What  objections  are  there 
to  the  other  methods  ? 

XIV.  What  is  an  ear-to-row  test?     Upon  what  fact  is    it 
based?     How  would  you  conduct  such  a  test?     What  factors 
may  influence  the  value  of  the  test  ?     What  is  the  use  of  the 
check  rows?     Why  does  one  not  select  seed  corn  from  the  ear- 
to-row  test  ? 

XV.  What   is  a   breeding   plot,  and  how  is   it  conducted  ? 
What  is  a  multiplying  plot  ?     What  are  the  practical  advantages 
of  a  corn  show  ? 

XVI.  Give  the  life  history  and  methods  of  controlling  the 
insect  enemies  of  corn.     The  fungous  diseases. 

CHAPTER   V 

I.  Discuss  the  antiquity  of  wheat.     What  can  you  say  as  to 
its  usefulness  to  man  in  early  days  of  civilization  ? 

II.  What  are  the  distinctive  botanical  characteristics  of  wheat  ? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  407 

What  are  some  of  its  close  relatives  among  our  cultivated  crops  ? 
Based  upon  the  time  of  seeding,  what  groups  of  wheat  are  found 
in  the  United  States  ? 

III.  Compare  the  roots  of  wheat  with  those  of  corn  with 
respect  to  extent  of  development,   location  in  soil,   depth  of 
penetration  and  size. 

IV.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  wheat  plant  during  the 
early  stages  of  growth.     Where  does  growth  take  place  resulting 
in  the  elongation  of  the  stem  ?     What  is  stooling,  and  upon  what 
conditions  does  it  depend  ?     What  is  the  proportion  of  grain  to 
straw  ?     What  influences  have  fertilizers  upon  this  ratio  ? 

V.  Draw  on  the  board  a  spikelet  of  wheat  showing  all  of  the 
parts  in   their  relative   positions.     How  many   spikelets  grow 
from  each  joint  of  the  rachis  ?     What  factors  influence  the  num- 
ber of  spikelets  per  head?     What  is  a  sterile  flower?   Sterile 
spikelet?     What    are    the    common    shapes    of   wheat    heads? 
Are  they  variety  characteristics  or  due  to  soil  and  climate  ? 

VI.  Compare  the  flowers  of  wheat  with  those  of  the  corn 
plant.     Is  wheat  cross-pollinated  ?     Draw  a  longitudinal   sec- 
tion of  a  wheat  kernel  showing  the  position  of  parts.     What 
becomes  of  each  part  in  the  making  of  flour  ? 

VII.  Give  the  characteristics  of  each  type  of  wheat.     Give 
their  distribution  and  uses. 

VIII.  Tell  the  story  of  the  evolution  of  the  flour  mill.       De- 
scribe briefly  the  process  of  modern  milling,  giving  the  various 
products  resulting  therefrom.     What  are  the  different  grades 
of  flour,  and  what  determines  them?     Discuss  the  quality  of 
bread  made  from  the  different  bread  wheats.     What  are  the 
characteristics  of  a  good  bread  wheat  ? 

IX.  What  countries   are   the  principal   contributors   to   the 
world's  wheat  crop  ?     What  regions  in  the  United  States  produce 
large  amounts?     How  does  the  yield  per  acre  of  wheat  in  the 
United  States  compare  with  that  secured  in  other  lands  ?     Why 
does  the  world  at  large  manifest  so  much  interest  in  the  wheat 
crop  ?     What  can  you  say  of  the  relation  of  production  to  con- 
sumption of  wheat  in  the  world  to-day?     What  of  the  future? 
What  bread-eating  nations  produce  more  wheat  than  they  con- 
sume ?     Which  are  forced  to  import  wheat  to  meet  their  needs  ? 

X.  Name  the  wheat  districts  of  the  United  States,  and  de- 


408  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

scribe  the  kind  of  wheat  produced  in  each.  What  reasons  are 
there  for  this  condition  ?  Why  do  buyers  of  wheat  on  the  market 
pay  so  much  attention  to  where  the  wheat  was  grown  ? 

XI.  What  conditions  of  climate  and  soil  are  best  suited  for 
the  production  of  wheat?     Are  these  factors  as  important  in 
the  distribution  of  wheat  as  they  are  in  the  distribution  of  corn  ? 
How  does  climate  affect  the  quality  of  the  wheat  produced  ? 

XII.  What  place  does  wheat  usually  occupy  in  the  rotation  ? 
Where  is  continuous  culture  of  wheat  in  common  practice  ? 

XIII.  What  general    principles   of  preparing    the   seed  bed 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Corn  should  be  considered  in  pre- 
paring land  for  wheat?     What  important  difference  is  to  be 
considered  in  preparing  land  for  corn  and  for  wheat?     How 
would  one  prepare  an  oat  stubble  for  seeding  wheat?     A  corn 
field? 

XIV.  How    should    seed    wheat    be    prepared    for    sowing? 
Describe  the  formalin  treatment  for  smut.     Upon  what  factors 
does  the  time  of  seeding  wheat  depend?     Does  deep  seeding 
protect  wheat  from  freezing  out   during  the  winter?     At  what 
stage  of  development  should  wheat  be  harvested  ?     What  effect 
has  exposure  to  weathering  upon  the  crop  ? 

XV.  Why  is  the  problem  of  wheat  improvement  so  important  ? 
What  methods  may  be  employed?     How  should  a  variety  test 
be  conducted  ?     What  is  the  practical  value  of  such  a  test  ? 
How  does  the  head-row  test  of  wheat  differ  from  the  ear-row 
test  of  corn  ?     What  points  are  considered  by  the  miller  in  valu- 
ing wheat  for  the  making  of  flour? 

XVI.  Give  the  life  histories  and  methods  of  controlling  the 
insect  enemies  of  wheat.     The  fungous  diseases. 

CHAPTER   VI 

I.  Tell  something  of  the  history  of  the  cultivation  of  oats. 

II.  (a)  Compare  the  botanical  characteristics  of  oats  with  those 
of  wheat.     (6)  What  is  a  panicle  ?     (c)  What  different  type  of 
panicles  do  we  find  in  the  oat  plant?     (d)  Are  oats  likely  to 
become  mixed  when  two  varieties  are  grown  side  by  side  ? 

III.  (a)  How  does  the  thrashed  grain  of  oats  differ  from  that  of 
wheat  ?     (6)  About  what  percentage  of  the  total  weight  is  hull  ? 
(c)  What  factors  influence  the  percentage  of  hull  ?     (d)  What  is 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  409 

the  legal  weight  per  bushel,  and  what  variation  from  it  may  be 
expected?     (e)  What  are  clipped  oats? 

IV.  How  may  oats  be  classified  ?     What  types  are  grown  in 
your  section  ? 

V.  Discuss  use  of  .oats  as  (a)  feed   for  animals,   (6)  human 
food,  (c)  other  uses. 

VI.  What  are  the   leading    oat-producing  countries    of  the 
world  ?     What  part  of  the  world's  crop  is  produced  in  the  United 
States?     What    states    lead     in     the    production?     Compare 
yields  per  acre  obtained  in  the  United  States  with  those  of  other 
countries.     Does  the  United  States  export  oats  ? 

VII.  Discuss  the  adaptation  of  oats  to  soil  and  climate. 

VIII.  What     place     may    oats    occupy    in     the     rotation  ? 
(a)  Discuss  its  usefulness  as  a  nurse  crop  for  grasses  and  clovers. 
(6)  Discuss  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  for  oats,  and  the  use 
of  fertilizers  and  manures  in  oat  culture,     (c)  What  factors  in- 
fluence the  time  and  rate  of  seeding  ?     (d)  Outline  a  method  for 
the  improvement  of  the  oat  crop. 

IX.  How  would  you  treat  seed  oats  to  prevent  loose  smut  ? 

CHAPTER  VII 

I.  Discuss  the  ancient  culture  of  barley,  and  compare  it  in 
this  respect  with  that  of  wheat. 

II.  (a)  Compare  the  botanical  characteristics  of  barley  with 
those  of  wheat  and  oats.     (6)  How  do  the  spikelets  differ  from 
those  of  wheat  and  rye  ?      (c)  What  percentage  of  the  barley  grain 
is  hull  ?     (d)  How  does  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  barley 
is  harvested  affect  the  character  of  the  endosperm  ? 

III.  Describe  the  types  of  barley  and  the  basis  upon  which 
the  classifications  are  made. 

IV.  (a)  Discuss  the  uses  of  barley.     (6)  What  are  important 
by-products   of    the   malting   process?     (c)    What   advantages 
does  barley  possess  over  other  cereals  for  malting  ?     (d)  What 
are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  malting  barley  ? 

V.  (a)  Compare  the  world's  production  of  barley  with  that  of 
wheat,  oats  and  corn.     (6)  What  are  the  leading  barley  pro- 
ducing countries?     (c)  What  part  does  the  United  States  play 
in    the    world's   production?     (d)    Discuss    the  distribution   of 
barley  in  the  United  States,     (e)  Exports  and  imports. 


410  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

VI.  Discuss  (a)  the  methods  of  preparing  land  for  barley,  (6) 
time,  rate  and  methods  of  seeding. 

VII.  What  insect  enemies  and  fungous  diseases  are  trouble- 
some in  growing  barley  ?     How  may  they  be  controlled  ? 

CHAPTER   VIII 

I.  Discuss  the  culture  of  rye  with  respect  to  its  (a)  original 
home,  (6)  importance  in  early  agricultural  development,  (c)  im- 
portance in  recent  times. 

II.  Compare  the  botanical  characteristics  of  rye  with  those 
of  wheat. 

III.  Discuss  the  uses  of  rye  (a)  as  human  food,  (6)  as  green 
manure  and  forage. 

IV.  (a)  What  is  the  world's  production,  and  what  countries  are 
important  producers  of  rye  ?     (6)  Discuss  the  production  of  rye 
in  the  United  States  with  respect  to  (a)  total  production,  (6)  dis- 
tribution, (c)  yield  per  acre,  (d)  uses. 

V.  Compare  the  soil  and  climatic  adaptation  of  rye  (a)  with 
those  of  wheat  and  barley,  (6)  with  respecVto  cultural  methods. 

CHAPTER   IX 

I.  (a)  Discuss  the  early  history  of  rice.    (6)  Compare  it  botani- 
cally  with  the  other  cereals. 

II.  (a)  What  are  the  important  uses  of  rice  ?     (6)  How  is  it 
prepared  for  the  market  ?     (c)  What  are  its  by-products  ? 

III.  (a)  Discuss  the  world's  supply  and  demand  of  rice.     (6) 
What  countries  produce  it  in  large  amounts  ?     (c)  How  does  the 
United  States  rank  as  a  producer  of  rice  ?     (d)  Discuss  its  dis- 
tribution in  the  United  States,      (e)  Its  yield  per  acre. 

IV.  (a)  To  what  climate  and  soils  is  it  adapted?     (6)  Com- 
pare the  methods  of  its  culture  with  those  of  wheat. 

V.  (a)  Why  is  buckwheat  classed  with  the  cereals?     (6)  Com- 
pare its  botanical  characters  with  those  of  the  cereals,    (c)   How 
does  it  thicken  up  a  stand  when  seeded  too  thinly  ? 

VI.  What  are  the  uses  of  buckwheat  ?     How  does  buckwheat 
flour  differ  from  wheat  flour  ? 

VII.  Discuss  (a)  its  production  in  the  United  States,  (&)  its 
cultural  methods,  (c)  its  yield  per  acre,  (d)  methods  of  harvesting. 


EEVIEW  QUESTIONS  411 

CHAPTERS  X  AND  XI 

I.  Discuss  the  history  and  common  names  of  each  of  the 
following :   (a)   Timothy,  (6)   Kentucky  blue-grass,    (c)   Canada 
blue-grass,  (d)  redtop,  (e)  orchard-grass,  (/)  Brome-grass,  (g)  the 
fescues,  (h)  Bermuda-grass,  (i)  Johnson-grass. 

II.  Discuss  and  compare  the  above  grasses  with  respect  to 
the  following :    (a)  nature  and  extent  of  the  root   system,    (6) 
nature  and  extent  of  the  stem  and  leaves,  (c)  inflorescence,  (d) 
seed,   (e)  length  of  life,  and  (/)  influence  of  environment  upon 
these  characters. 

III.  Discuss  and  compare  the  distribution  and  adaptation 
of  the  above  grasses  with  respect  to :    (a)  soils,  (6)  climate,  (c) 
factors  limiting  production,   (d)  distribution  and  value  in  the 
United  States. 

IV.  Compare  the  methods  of  culture  of  the  above  grasses 
with  respect  to  (a)  preparation  of  seed  bed,  (6)  time  and  rate 
of  seeding,  (c)  use  of  nurse  crop,  (d)  mixtures  with  other  grasses 
and  clovers. 

V.  Discuss  and  compare  the  (a)  time  of  harvest,  (6)  quality  of 
hay,  (c)  quality  of  pasture,  (d)after  growth,  (e)  number  of  crops, 
(/)  yield  and  value. 

CHAPTER   XII 

I.  To  what  group  of  field  crops  do  the  millets  belong  ?     What 
determines  their  classification  ? 

II.  What  are  the  fox-tail  millets  ?     Discuss  the  three  varieties 
with  respect  to   (a)    general    appearance    and   botanical  char- 
acteristics, (6)  earliness,  (c)  adaptation  to  soils,  (d)  to  climate, 
(e}  extent  of  culture,  (/)  use,  (g}  yield. 

III.  Compare  the  broom-corn  millets  with  the  fox-tails  with 
respect   to    (a)    botanical    characteristics,    (6)    adaptation,    (c) 
uses,  (d)  yield. 

IV.  Discuss   the   barnyard   millets   from    the    standpoint  of 
(a)  use  as  forage,  (6)  adaptation  to  soils  and  climate,  (c)  extent 
of  culture. 

V.  Discuss  the  methods  of  seeding  millets.     Their  harvest. 

VI.  What  has  been  the  probable  origin  of  our  cultivated 
sorghums  ?     What  are  the  groups  of  sorghums,  and  how  do  they 
differ  in  their  botanical  characteristics  ? 


412  EEVIEW  QUESTIONS 

VII.  Compare  the  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums 
with  respect  to  (a)  adaptation  to  soil,  (6)  climate,  (c)  methods 
of  culture,  (d)  uses,  (e)  extent  of  culture,  (/)  yield  and  value. 

VIII.  Compare  the  kafirs  with  the  milo  in  respect  to  their 
(a)  distribution,   (6)  adaptation,   (c)  cultural  method,  (d)  uses 
and  value. 

IX.  (a)   What  relationship  exists  between  the  millets    and 
broom-corns  ?     Give  the  botanical  characteristics  of  the  broom- 
corns.     (6)   Discuss  them  as  to   (1)  adaptation,   (2)  extent   of 
culture,  (3)  value,  (4)  cultural  methods. 

CHAPTER   XIII 

I.  (a)  Tell  something  of  the  membership  of  the  Leguminos® 
family.     (6)  How  does  the  Papilionacese  group  get  its  name? 
In  common  usage  the  term  "legume"  refers  to  which  members 
of  the  Leguminosse  family  ? 

II.  Compare  the  following  botanical  characteristics  of  the 
legumes  with  the  grasses  :  (a)  root  system,  (6)  stem  development, 
(c)  leaves,  (d)  flowers,  (e)  fruit,  (/)  seeds. 

III.  Dissect  a  flower  of  the  pea  or  bean,  noting  the  arrange- 
ment of  parts  and  their  functions.    How  do  we  know  that  insects 
play  an  important  role  in  the  pollination  of  certain  legumes. 

IV.  Tell  the  story  of  the  discovery  of  the  relationship  of  the 
legumes  to  the  nodule  bacteria.     How  do  both  the  legume  and 
the  bacteria  profit  by  their  close  relationship  ?     Does  each  legume 
have  a  certain  type  of  bacteria  with  which  it  lives  in  symbiosis  ? 

V.  How  do  the  bacteria  become  distributed  over  such  large 
areas?     What  methods  of  inoculation  may  be  employed? 

CHAPTER   XIV 

I.  To  what  genus  do  the  true  clovers  belong  ? 

II.  Discuss  the  history  of  the  red  clover.     By  what   other 
names  is  it  known  ?     Answer  the  same  questions  for  alsike,  white, 
crimson  and  mammoth  clovers.  , 

III.  Compare  the  following  botanical  characteristics  of  the 
above  clovers :  (a)  root  system,  (6)  extent  and  development  of 
stems,  (c)  leaves,  (d)  flowers,  (e)  seeds,  (/)  length  of  life. 

IV.  Compare  them  with  respect  to  (a)  adaptation  to  soils, 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  413 

(6)  climates,  (c)  rotations,  (d)  uses,  (e)  after  growth,  (/)  methods 
and  rate  of  seeding,  (g)  harvesting. 

V.    Give  the  life  histories  of  the  insect  enemies  of  clovers. 
How  may  they  be  controlled  ? 

CHAPTER   XV 

I.  Discuss  the  history  of  alfalfa  as  a  farm  crop. 

II.  Discuss  alfalfa  with  respect  to   (a)  extent  and  develop- 
ment of  root  system,  (6)  stems  and  leaves,  (c)  flowers  and  seeds, 
(d)  varieties. 

III.  What  can  you  say  of  the  distribution  of  alfalfa  in  (a)  Eu- 
rope ?  (6)  South  America  ?   (c)  The  United  States  ? 

IV.  What  are  its   climatic   adaptations?     Discuss  fully  its 
adaptation  to  soils. 

V.  What  are  the  principal  uses  of  alfalfa?     Why  is  it  con- 
sidered a  valuable  and  profitable  crop?     Does  it  lend  itself  to 
short  rotations  ? 

VI.  Discuss  the  cultural  methods  of  alfalfa  with  respect  to 
(a)  preparing  the  land,  (6)  time  of  seeding,  (c}  rate  of  seeding, 
(d)  use  of  nurse  crop,  (e}  cultivation,  (/)  time  of  cutting  for  hay, 
(g)  use  as  pasture,  (h)  cutting  for  seed,  (i)  yield  of  hay  and  seed. 

CHAPTER   XVI 

I.  Compare  the  two  vetches  with  respect  to   (a)   botanical 
characteristics     of    plant     and    seed,     (6)     cultural    methods, 
(c)  length  of  life,  (d)  distribution,  (e)  adaptation,  (/)  uses. 

II.  Give  the  botanical  characteristics  of  the  two  sweet  clovers. 
Discuss  them  with  respect  to  (a)  adaptation,  (6)  uses,  (c)  cul- 
tural methods. 

III.  Where  are  the  following  legumes  grown,  and  of  what 
importance  are  they  in  those  localities :    (a)  Japan  clover,  (6) 
bur  clover? 

CHAPTER   XVII 

I.  Compare  the  soy  bean  with  the  cowpea  in  respect  to  the 
following :  (a)  history,  (6)  botanical  characteristics  of  root, 
stem,  leaves  and  flowers,  (c)  varieties,  (d)  distribution,  (e)  adapta- 
tion to  soils  and  climates,  (/)  uses. 


414  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

II.  Discuss  them  with  respect  to    (a)   cultural  methods,  (6) 
time  and  rate  of  seeding,  (c)  cultivation,  (d)  harvesting,  (e)  yield. 

III.  How  does  the  field  pea  differ  from  the  cowpea  and  the 
soy  bean  in  respect  to  (a)  general  appearance,  (6)  botanical  char- 
acteristics, (c)  distribution  and  adaptation,  (d)  cultural  methods, 
(e)  uses,  and  (/)  yield. 

IV.  Where  are  field  beans  and  peanuts  grown  as  farm  crops  ? 
Discuss  their  adaptations  and  cultural  methods.      Their  yield 
value  and  uses. 

CHAPTER    XVIII 

I.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  root  crops  ? 
What  are  the  important  root  crops?     What  are  the  important 
groups  of  the  beet  family  ? 

II.  (a)  How  has  the  sugar  beet  been  developed  ?     (6)  What 
is  the  sugar  content  of  good  beets?     (c)  What  is  the  world's 
production,  and  what  part  of  it  is  contributed  by  the  United 
States  ?     (d)  What  are  the  climatic  and  soil  adaptations  of  the 
sugar  beet  ?     (e)  Discuss  the  cultural  methods  of  sugar  beets  with 
respect  to  (1)  preparation  of  land,  (2)  time  and  rate  of  seeding, 
(3)  cultivation,  (4)  harvesting,  (5)  marketing,  (6)  seed  production. 

III.  Discuss  the  mangel-wurzel,  carrot,  turnip  and  rutabaga 
with  respect  to  (a)  adaptation,  (6)  cultural  methods,  (c)  uses, 
(d)  value,  (e)  yield. 

IV.  (a)  Is  rape  a  true  root  crop?     (6)  To  what  garden  crop 
is  it  closely  related  ?     (c)  Discuss  rape  with  respect  to  (1)  adapta- 
tion, (2)  use  as  hay,  (3)  use  as  pasture,  (4)  cultural  methods. 

CHAPTER   XIX 

I.  Tell  something  of  the  history  of  the  cotton  plant,     (a)  To 
what  family  of  plants  does  it  belong  ?     (6)   Give  its  characteris- 
tics, with  respect  to   (1)  roots,    (2)    stem  and   leaves,  (3)  boll 
and  fiber,  (4)  seed,     (c)   Describe  the  three  types  of  cotton. 

II.  What  is  the  principal  use  of  the  fiber  ?     How  is  the  fiber 
prepared  for  the  market  ?     How  is  it  manufactured  into  cloth  ? 

III.  What  use  is  made  of  the  cotton  seed?     What  yield  is 
secured  per  acre  ?     What  is  its  value  ? 

IV.  What  is  the  world's  production  of  cotton,  and  what  part 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  415 

of  it  is  contributed  by  the  United  States?     What  is  the  cotton 
belt  of  the  United  States? 

V.  Discuss  the  adaptation  of  cotton  to  soils  and  climate. 

VI.  Discuss  its  culture  with  respect  to  (a)  preparing  the  land, 
(6)  planting  and  cultivation,  (c)  harvesting. 

VII.  What  are  the  troublesome  insect  enemies? 

VIII.  What  are  the  distinctive  botanical  characteristics   of 
flax  ?     How  does  it  thicken  up  a  stand  ? 

IX.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  seed  ?     What  articles  are  made 
from  the  fiber  ?     How  is  the  fiber  prepared  for  market  ? 

X.  Where  is  flax  grown  for  seed  ?     Where  for  fiber  ?     Which 
is  the  most  important  use?     What  are  the  soil  and  climatic 
adaptations  ?     Discuss  the  cultural  methods  employed. 

XI.  Discuss  hemp  with  respect  to  (a)  botanical  relationships, 
(6)  characteristics,   (c)  adaptations,   (d)    distribution,    (e)   uses, 
(/)  cultural  methods,  (g)  yield. 

CHAPTER   XX 

I.  Tell  of  the  early  history  of  potato  culture  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Europe. 

II.  How   does   the   United   States   compare  with   European 
countries  as  a  producer  of  potatoes  ?     In  what  states  are  potatoes 
an  important  field  crop,  and  what  are  their  acre  yields  ? 

III.  How  is  the  potato  propagated?     What  is  the  tuber? 
Where  is  the  seed  produced?     Why  is  it  not  used  in  propaga- 
tion?     Compare  the  chemical  composition  of  the  potato  with 
that  of  corn. 

IV.  Discuss  the  types  of  soil  best  suited  for  growing  potatoes. 
What  place  do  potatoes  occupy  in  the  rotation  ? 

V.  What  is  sun  sprouting  ?     What  are  its  advantages  ?     Com- 
pare Northern  grown  with  home  grown  seed. 

VI.  What  is  the  usual  rate  and  depth  of  planting  potatoes  ? 
What  fertilizers  may  be  used  to  advantage  ? 

VII.  What  are  some  well-known  varieties  of  potatoes  ?    Which 
ones  are  grown  in  your  locality  ? 

VIII.  Discuss  the  "running  out"  of  potatoes. 

IX.  When   should   potatoes   be   harvested?     What    sort   of 
machinery  may  be  employed  in  harvesting  them  ?     Discuss  the 
storing  of  potatoes. 


416  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

X.    Give  the  life  histories  and  methods  of  controlling  the  insect 
enemies  of  potatoes.     The  fungous  diseases. 

CHAPTER   XXI 

I.  What  importance  does  the  farmer  usually  attach  to  the 
meadows  and  pastures  in  comparison  with  other  field  crops? 
What  has  been  the  result  ? 

II.  Discuss    their    fertilization    with    manure    and    chemical 
fertilizers.     Results   of   continuous   cropping   without   fertiliza- 
tion. 

III.  What  are  the  advantages  of  grass  and  legume  mixtures 
for    (a)  hay,    (6)  pasture?     What  factors  must  be  considered 
in  forming  the  mixtures  ? 

IV.  How  may  grass  and  legume  seed  be  tested  for  germina- 
tion ?    For  purity  ?    Are  these  tests  important  ? 

V.  Discuss  the  care  of  grass  lands  for  best  results.     How  would 
you  go  about  improving  a  run-down  meadow  or  pasture  ? 

VI.  Can  you  plan  a  scheme  by  which  temporary  pasture 
may  be  available  throughout  the  growing  season  ? 

VII.  What  is  the  value  of  substitute  hay  crops  ? 

CHAPTER   XXII 

I.  What  has  made  possible  the  great  specialization  in  crop 
production  that  is  found  to-day  ?     Why  was  this  impossible  in 
the  early  days  of  agricultural  development  ? 

II.  What  are  the  three  types  of  country  elevators?     What 
is  their  function,  and  how  are  they  of  service  to  the  farmer  ?    Dis- 
cuss the  methods  of  management  of  each  type. 

III.  What   is   a   terminal   market?      A   terminal   elevator? 
What  function  does  the  latter  perform  ? 

IV.  Why  is  grain  graded  on  the  market  ?     How  is  it  done  ? 
What  are  the  methods  of  sale  at  the  terminal  market?     The 
kinds  of  contracts?     Systems  of  credit?     Upon  what  does  the 
price  of  grain  depend  ? 

V.  How  does  our  surplus  grain  reach  the  foreign  markets  ? 


INDEX 


Agronomist,  9. 
Agrostis  alba,  206. 
Alfalfa : 

adaptations  to  climate,  282. 

adaptation  to  soils,  283. 

cultivation  of,  288. 

cultural  methods  of,  286. 

description  of,  279. 

distribution  of,  282. 

harvesting  seed,  291. 

history,  278. 

making  the  hay,  289. 

seeding  of,  287. 

uses  of,  284. 

varieties  of,  281. 
Alsike  clover,  270. 
Arachis  hypogoea,  320. 

Bacteria  of  legumes,  249. 
Barley : 

adaptation  of,  172. 

botanical  characters  of,  165. 

brewers'  grain  from,  170. 

culm  of,  165. 

exports  of,  172. 

feeding  value  of,  170. 

fungous  diseases  of,  176. 

harvesting  of,  175. 

history  of,  164. 

hull-less,  168. 

imports  of,  172. 

insect  enemies  of,  176. 

kinds  for  malting,  170. 

making  malt  from,  168. 

malt  extract  of,  169. 

methods  of  culture,  173. 

percentage  of  hull,  166. 

preparing  land  for,  173. 

price  of,  170. 

production  of,  171. 

2E 


Barley  —  continued : 

roots  of,  165. 

rotations  for,  173. 

seeding  of,  175. 

six-rowed,  168. 

soils  for,  172. 

spikelets  of,  165. 

two-rowed,  167. 

types  of,  167. 

use  of,  168. 

varieties  of,  168. 

weight  per  bushel  of,  167. 

yield  per  acre  of,  17 1. 
Barnyard  millets,  225. 
Barren  stalks,  73,  74. 
Bean,  soy,  305. 
Bean,  the  field,  320. 
Beet  family,  323. 
Bermuda-grass : 

adaptation,  218. 

cultural  methods,  218. 

description,  217. 

uses,  218. 
Beta  vulgaris,  323. 
Blue-grass,  Kentucky: 

adaptation,  203. 

cultural  methods,  205. 

description,  201. 

distribution,  203. 

harvesting,  204. 

mixtures  of,  205. 

seeding,  205. 

seed,  weight  per  bushel,  202. 

uses  of,  204. 

Blue-grass,  Canada,  206. 
Botany,  systematic,  2. 
Brace  roots  of  corn,  32. 
Brassica  rapus,  333. 
Bread  wheats,  112. 
Brewers'  grain,  170. 


417 


418 


INDEX 


Brome-grass : 

adaptation,  214. 

cultural  methods,  215. 

description,  213. 

distribution,  214. 

uses,  214. 

Bromus  inter  mis,  213. 
Broomcorn : 

adaptation,  236. 

cultural  methods,  237. 

description,  235. 

dwarf-type,  235. 

harvesting,  237. 

standard,  235. 
Broom-corn  millets,  224. 
Bryophytes,  6. 
Buckwheat : 

adaptation,  192. 

botanical  description,  189. 

by-products  from,  191. 

composition  of,  401. 

cultural  methods,  192. 

farm  value,  192. 

harvesting,  193. 

history,  186. 

production,  191. 

relationships,  189. 

seeding,  192. 

seeds,  191. 

uses,  191. 

weight  per  bushel,  191. 

yield,  192. 
Bur  clover,  302. 

Canada  blue-grass,  206. 
Canada  field  peas,  317. 
Cane,  229. 

Capriola  dactylon,  217. 
Carrot,  332. 
Catch  crop,  12. 
Cereals,  10. 
Chcetochloa  italica,  221. 
Chevalier  barley,  168. 
Chinch  bug,  143. 
Clipped  oats,  149. 
Clover,  alsike : 

adaptation,  270. 

cultural  methods  of,  271. 

description  of,  269. 


Clover,  alsike  —  continued: 

distribution  of,  270. 
Clover,  bur,  302. 
Clover,  crimson : 

adaptation  of,  273. 

cultural  methods  of,  275. 

description  of,  272. 

distribution  of,  273. 

uses  of,  274. 
Clover,  Japan,  303. 
Clover,  mammoth : 

adaptation,  264. 

cultural  methods,  265. 

description,  264. 

distribution  of,  264. 

uses  of,  265. 
Clover,  red : 

adaptation,  256. 

cultural  methods,  259. 

cutting  for  hay,  261. 

cutting  for  seed,  262. 

description  of,  254. 

distribution  of,  256. 

history  of,  254. 

insect  enemies  of,  276. 

seed  of,  256. 

uses  of,  258. 
Clover,  white : 

adaptation,  267. 

cultural  .methods,  267. 

description,  266. 

uses  of,  267. 
Clover,  white  sweet : 

adaptation,  299. 

cultural  methods,  301. 

description,  298. 

uses,  300. 

Clover,  yellow  sweet,  302. 
Clover  leaf  weevil,  276. 
Clover  root  borer,  276. 
Clover  seed  midge,  277. 
Clovers : 

insect  enemies  of,  276. 

relationships,  253. 
Club  wheat,  110,  125. 
Colorado  potato  beetle,  366. 
Contracts  of  sale,  390. 
Corn : 

adaptation  of,  57. 


INDEX 


419 


Corn  —  continued: 

ancestors  of,  38. 

botanical  characters  of,  30. 

breeding  plot  of,  90. 

cultivation  of,  75. 

culture  of,  59. 

dent  corn,  42. 

ears  of,  36. 

ear-to-row  test,  88. 

exports  of,  56. 

fertilization  of,  60. 

field  selection  of,  87. 

flint  corn,  43. 

flowers  of,  34. 

fodder,  78. 

fungous  diseases  of,  96. 

grading  seed,  71. 

harvesting  of,  76. 

history  of,  29. 

improvement  of,  82. 

insect  enemies  of,  93. 

judging  of,  92. 

kernels  of,  37. 

leaves  of,  33. 

loss  in  store,  81. 

manufactured  products  of,  51. 

multiplying  plot,  91. 

planting  of,  71. 

plowing  for,  61. 

pod  corn,  49. 

pop  corn,  44. 

preparing  land  for,  66. 

production  of,  54. 

protecting  from  rodents,  98. 

roots  of,  30. 

rotation  of,  59. 

soft  corn,  46. 

stand  of,  68. 

stem  of,  32. 

stover,  78. 

sweet  corn,  47. 

testing  of  seed,  68. 

types  of,  41. 

uses  of,  50-53. 

value  of,  57. 

variety  tests  of,  83. 

weight  per  bushel,  46. 

yield  of,  56. 
Corn-root  louse,  95. 


Corn  root-worm,  95. 
Cotton : 

adaptation  of,  346. 

boll  of,  340. 

cultivation  of,  349. 

culture  of,  348. 

description  of,  337. 

fiber  of,  340. 

harvesting,  350. 

history  of,  336. 

insect  enemies  of,  351. 

kinds  of,  341. 

linter  of,  344. 

marketing  of,  342. 

oil  cake  of,  344. 

preparation  of  fiber,  342. 

production  in  United  States,  346 

production  in  world,  345. 

Sea  Island,  341. 

upland,  341. 

varieties  of,  342. 

yield  of,  346. 
Cotton  fabrics,  342. 
Cover  crops,  12. 
Cowpea : 

adaptation  of,  314. 

cultural  methods  of,  315. 

description  of,  312. 

distribution  of,  314. 

uses  of,  314. 
Credit  system,  391. 
Crimson  clover,  272. 
Crop  rotations : 

advantages  of,  20. 

at  Iowa  and  Illinois,  16. 

at  Rothamsted,  14,  15. 

in  Ohio,  18. 

maintaining  fertility  by,  25. 

planning  of,  23. 

suggested  rotations,  27. 
Cultivated  plants,  1,  8. 
Cut  worm,  94. 

Dactylis  glomerata,  210. 
Dry  rot  of  potato,  369. 
Durum  wheat,  111,  126. 

Early  blight  of  potato,  368. 
Ear-to-row  test,  88. 


420 


INDEX 


Ear  rots,  97. 
Einkorn,  108. 
Elevators : 

cooperative,  383. 

country,  382. 

line,  383. 

seaboard,  394. 

terminal,  385. 
Emmer,  109. 
Export  trade  in  grain,  394. 

Fagopyrum  esculentum,  189. 
Fertilization  of : 

corn,  35. 

cotton,  348. 

grasses,  377. 

oats,  155. 

wheat,  129. 
Fescue,  meadow : 

adaptation,  216. 

cultural  methods,  217. 

description,  215. 

uses,  216. 
Fescue,  tall,  215. 
Fiber  crops,  11,  337. 
Field  bean,  320. 
Field  crops: 

classification  of,  9. 

miscellaneous,  12. 
Field  pea : 

adaptation  of,  317. 

cultural  methods  of,  318. 

description  of,  316. 

distribution  of,  317. 

harvesting  of,  319. 

uses  of,  318. 
Flax: 

adaptation  of,  355. 

culture  of,  355. 

description  of,  351. 

distribution  of,  354. 

production  of,  354. 

use  of  fiber,  253. 

use  of  seed,  354. 
Flea  beetle,  367. 
Flour,  composition  of,  119. 
Flour,  kinds  of,  116. 
Flour  mill,  114. 
Food  of  plants,  1. 


Forage  crops,  10. 
Foxtail  millets,  221. 
French  clover,  272. 
Fungous  diseases  of : 

corn,  96. 

oats,  162. 

wheat,  142. 

German  clover,  272. 
German  millet,  223. 
Gluten  feed,  52. 
Gluten  meal,  52. 
Glycine  hispida,  305. 
Gossypium  barbadense,  341. 
Gossypium  hirsutum,  341. 
Grades  of  grain,  386. 
Grain  crops,  10. 
Grain  inspection,  386. 
Grain  of  poverty,  181. 
Gramineae,  5,  11. 
Green  manure  crop,  12,  179. 
Grub  worm,  94. 

Hairy  vetch,  294. 
Hard-winter  wheat,  124. 
Head-row  test,  139. 
Hemp,  356. 
Hessian  fly,  143. 
Hominy,  51. 
Hordeum  sativum,  165. 
Horticultural  crops,  8. 
Hull-less  barley,  168. 
Hungarian  millet,  223. 

Inoculation  for  legumes,  250. 
Insect  enemies  of : 

clovers,  276. 

corn,  93. 

cotton,  351. 

potatoes,  366. 

wheat,  142. 
Italian  rye  grass,  220. 

Japan  clover,  303. 
Japanese  millet,  225. 
Johnson  grass,  219. 
June  beetle,  367. 

Kafir,  233. 

Kentucky  blue-grass,  3,  201. 


INDEX 


421 


Late  blight  of  potatoes,  368. 
Legumes : 

bacteria  in  relationship  to,  247. 

description  of,  239. 

flowers  of,  240. 

fruit  of,  241. 

importance  of  insects,  243. 

inoculation  for,  250. 

membership  of  family,  239. 

pollination  of,  242. 

relation  to  bacteria,  247. 

relation  to  soil  fertility,  245. 
Leguminosae,  11,  239,  253. 
Lespedeza  striata,  303. 
Linen  fabrics,  353. 
Listing  of  land,  72. 
Lolium  italicum,  220. 
Lolium  perenne,  219. 

Maize,  29. 

Malt,  making  of,  168. 
Malt  sprouts,  169. 
Mammoth  clover,  264. 
Mangel-wurzels,  329. 
Marketing  of  grain,  381. 
Meadow  fescue,  215. 
Meadows : 

care  of,  377. 

grass  mixtures  for,  372. 

improvement  of,  378. 

rotations  for,  371. 

seeding  of,  377. 

substitute  crops  for,  380. 
Medicago  maculata,  302. 
Medicago  saliva,  279. 
Melilotus  alba,  298. 
Melilotus  officinalis,  298. 
Millets : 

cultural  methods  of,  227. 

seeding  of,  227. 

substitute  crops,  227. 

uses,  226. 

yield  of,  227. 
Millets,  kinds  of : 

barnyard,  225. 

broom-corn,  224. 

common,  222. 

foxtail,  221. 

German,  223. 


Millets,  kinds  of  —  continued : 

Hungarian,  223. 

pearl,  226. 

Milling  of  wheat,  115. 
Milo,  234. 
Miscellaneous  crops,  12. 

Names  of  plants,  5. 
Nonsaccharine  sorghums,  232. 

Oats: 

adaptation  of,  154. 

botanical  characters  of,  145. 

culture  of,  155. 

exports  of,  153. 

fertilizers  for,  157. 

flowers  of,  147. 

fungous  diseases  of,  162. 

harvesting  of,  160. 

history  of,  145. 

improvement  of,  161. 

insect  enemies  of,  162. 

leaves  of,  146. 

preparing  land  for,  156. 

production  of,  152. 

rotations  for,  155. 

seeding  of,  158. 

spikelets  of,  146. 

types  of,  150. 

uses  of,  150. 

varieties  of,  150. 

variety  tests  of,  161. 
Oil  cake,  344. 
Orchard  grass : 

adaptation,  211. 

cultural  methods,  212. 

description,  210. 

distribution,  211. 

seed,  weight  per  bushel,  211. 

uses,  211. 
Oryza  sativa,  184. 

Panicum  crus-galli,  225. 
Panicum  miliaceum,  224. 
Papilionacese,  239. 
Pastures : 

care  of,  377. 

grass  mixtures  for,  372. 

improvement  of,  378. 


422 


INDEX 


Pastures  — •  continued : 

rotations  of,  371. 

temporary,  379. 

testing  seed  for,  377. 
Pea,  the  field,  316. 
Peanut,  321. 
Pearl  millet,  226. 
Perennial  grasses,  194,  210. 
Perennial  rye  grass,  219. 
Phaseolus  vulgaris,  320. 
Phleum  pratense,  194. 
Pisum  sativum,  316. 
Plants : 

classes  of,  6. 

classification  of,  2. 

cultivated,  1,  8. 

dicotyledonous,  7. 

divisions  of,  6. 

families  of,  3. 

food  supply  of,  1. 

genera,  2. 

kingdoms,  1. 

life  of,  7. 

monocotyledonous,  7. 

naming  of,  3. 

orders  of,  6. 

species  of,  3.        ',    • 

uncultivated,  8. 

uses  of,  2. 

varieties  of,  3. 
Plowing : 

fall,  63. 

spring,  65. 
Poa  compressa,  206. 
Poa  pratensis,  201. 
Pollination  of  legumes,  242. 
Polygonacese,  189. 
Potato : 

adaptation  of,  360. 

blights  of,  368. 

description  of,  359. 

dry  rot  of,  369. 

fertilizers  for,  362. 

harvesting  of,  366. 

history  of,  358. 

insect  enemies  of,  366. 

northern  grown  seed,  362. 

planting  of,  361. 

production  of,  359. 


Potato  —  continued: 

rotations  for,  360. 

running  out  of,  364. 

scab,  368. 

storage  of,  366. 

sun  sprouting  of,  361. 

varieties  of,  363. 

yield  of,  359. 
Poulard  wheat,  111. 
Price  of  grain,  392. 

Rape: 

adaptation  of,  333. 

cultural  methods,  335. 

description  of,  333. 

uses  of,  334. 
Red  clover,  254. 
Red-top  : 

adaptation  of,  208. 

cultural  methods  of,  209. 

description  of,  206. 

distribution  of,  208. 

seed,  weight  per  bushel,  207. 

uses,  208. 

Red-winter  wheat,  123. 
Rice: 

adaptation  of,  187. 

botanical  characters  of,  184. 

by-products  of,  186. 

cultural  methods  of,  188. 

harvesting  of,  189. 

history  of,  184. 

imports  of,  185. 

irrigation  of,  185,  188. 

kernel  of,  185. 

production  of,  186. 

roots  of,  184. 

seeding  of,  188. 

spikelets  of,  185. 

upland,  185,  188. 

uses  of,  185. 

yield  of,  187. 
Roller,  use  of,  67. 
Root  crops,  11,  323. 
Rutabaga,  331. 
Rye: 

adaptation  of,  181. 

botanical  characters  of,  177. 

bread  from,  178. 


INDEX 


423 


Rye  —  continued : 
culm  of,  178. 
culture  of,  182. 
flour,  178. 
forage  crops,  179: 
fungous  diseases  of,  183. 
green  manure  crop,  179. 
history  of,  177. 
insect  enemies  of,  183. 
kernel  of,  178. 
pasturing,  179. 
production  of,  180. 
roots  of,  177. 
seeding  of,  182. 
soils  for,  181. 
spikelets  of,  177. 
uses  of,  178. 
yield  of,  181. 

Saccharine  sorghums,  229. 
Sale  of  grain,  389. 
Scab  of  potato,  368. 
Sea  Island  cotton,  341. 
Secale  cereale,  177. 
Shipping  grain,  382. 
Silage  crops,  13. 
Silo,  filling  of,  79. 
Six-rowed  barley,  167. 
Smut,  treatment  for,  132. 
Soiling  crop,  12. 
Sorghum  halpensis,  228. 
Sorghums : 

classes  of,  229. 

description,  228. 
Sorghums,  nonsaccharine : 

culture  of,  237. 

description  of,  232. 

kafir,  233. 

milo,  234. 

varieties  of,  233. 
Sorghums,  saccharine : 

cultural  methods  of,  230. 

description  of,  229. 

harvesting  of,  231,  232. 

varieties  of,  230. 
Sorgo,  229. 
Soy  bean : 

adaptation  of,  307. 

cultural  methods  of,  310. 


Soy  bean  —  continued: 

description  of,  305. 

distribution  of,  307. 

harvesting  of,  311. 

seeding  of,  310. 

uses,  308. 

Species  of  plants,  3. 
Spelt,  108. 
Spermatophytes,  6. 
Spring  vetch,  297. 
Substitute  hay  crops,  380. 
Sugar  beet : 

adaptation,  326. 

cultural  methods,  326. 

description,  324. 

distribution,  325. 

seeding,  327. 

seed  production,  329. 

sugar  manufacturing,  328. 
Sun  sprouting  potatoes,  363. 
Sweedish  clover,  269. 
Sweet  clover,  298. 

Temporary  pastures,  379. 
Teosinte,  38. 
Testing  seed : 

corn,  68. 

grass,  374. 
Thallophytes,  6. 
Timothy : 

adaptation,  196. 

cultural  methods,  197. 

cutting  for  hay,  198. 

cutting  for  seed,  200. 

description  of,  194. 

distribution  of,  196. 

history  of,  194. 

improvement  of,  200. 

mixtures  of,  197. 

seeding  of,  197. 

seed,  weight  per  bushel,  196. 

yield  of,  200. 

Toxic  substances  in  soil,  22. 
Trifolium,  253. 
Trifolium  hybridum,  269. 
Trifolium  incarnatum,  270. 
Trifolium  pratense,  254. 
Trifolium  pratense  perenne,  264. 
Trifolium  repens,  266. 


424 


INDEX 


Triticum  sativum,  107. 
Turnip,  231. 
Two-rowed  barley,  167. 

Variety  tests,  83,  137. 
Vetch,  hairy : 

adaptations  of,  294. 

cultural  methods  of,  295. 

description  of,  294. 
Vetch,  spring,  297. 
Vicia  sativa,  294. 
Vicia  mllosa,  294. 
Vigna  unguiculata,  312. 

Weeder,  use  of,  75. 
Wheat : 

adaptation  of,  127,  128. 

bread  wheats,  112. 

by-products  of,  118. 

classification  of,  107. 

club  wheat,  110. 

common  wheat,  110. 

cultivation  of,  113. 

culture  of,  129. 

districts  in  United  States,  123. 

durum,  111,  126. 

flower  of,  104-105. 

fungous  diseases  of,  142. 

grades  of,  386. 

hard-wheats,  124. 


Wheat  —  continued : 

harvesting  of,  134. 

head-row-test,  139. 

history  of,  99. 

improvement  of,  136. 

insect  enemies  of,  142. 

judging  of,  141. 

kernels  of,  106. 

leaves  of,  103. 

milling  of,  115. 

preparing  land  for,  129. 

preparing  seed,  131. 

production  of,  119. 

red-winter  wheat,  123. 

roots  of,  100. 

rotations  for,  129. 

seeding  of,  132. 

smut  treatment,  132. 

soft  wheats,  125. 

spikelets  of,  104. 

stems  of,  101. 

storage  of,  136. 

types  of,  107. 

uses  of,  113. 

variety  tests  of,  137. 

yield  of,  121. 
White  clover,  266. 
Wire-worm,  93. 

Zea  mays,  4,  30,  41. 


'""THE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


Warren's  Elements  of  Agriculture 

By  G.  F.  WARREN,  Professor  of  Farm  Management  and 
Farm  Crops,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cor- 
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culture, Cornell  University,  an  authority  on  questions  pertaining  to  practical 
agriculture. 

Professor  Warren  is,  moreover,  a  farmer.  He  grew  up  on  a  farm  in  the  mid- 
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In  Warren's  "  Elements  of  Agriculture  "  there  is  no  waste  space.  It  is  writ- 
ten with  the  ease  that  characterizes  a  writer  at  home  in  his  subject,  and  it  is 
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Experts  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture  the  country  over  have  been  unanimous 
in  praise  of  the  text.  For  instance : 

Mr.  J.  E.  BLAIR,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Corncana,  Texas  : 

"An  examination  of  Warren's  '  Elements  of  Agriculture'  convinces  me  that 
it  is  a  book  of  uncommon  merit  for  secondary  schools  as  well  as  for  the  private 
student.  It  is  thoroughly  scientific  in  matter,  and  is  written  in  an  attractive 
style,  that  cannot  fail  to  please  as  well  as  instruct." 

Supt.  E.  S.  SMITH,  Whiting,  Iowa  : 

"  I  am  very  much  pleased  with  Warren's  '  Elements  of  Agriculture.'  In  my 
opinion  it  is  the  only  book  on  the  market  that  presents  the  work  of  agriculture 
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Chemistry  and  its   Relations  to   Daily  Life 

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